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A    COMPLETE 

HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

FOR  SCHOOLS,  CLUBS.  AND  PRIVATE  READING 
By  W.  J.  BALTZELL 

Contributions  by 

H.  A.  CLARKE.  Mus.  Doc.;  ARTHUR  ELSON,  CLARENCE  G.  HAMILTON,  A.\  , 

EDWARD  BURLINGAME  HILL,  A.B.,  ARTHUR  L.  JUDSON.  FREDERIC 

S.  LAW.  AND  PRESTON  WARE  OREM,  Mus.  Bac. 


With  Portraits,  Reproductions  ot  Instruments 
and  Musical  Ejcamples 


PHILADELPHIA.  PA. 

THEODORE  PRESSER  CO. 


T87  81177 


Oopsrright,  1905,  by  THEO.   PRESSHE 
British  Copyright  Sbcurbd. 


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PREFACE. 


The  plan  of  arrangement  used  in  this  book  has  in  view 
a  combination  of  the  recitation  and  lecture  systems,  and 
affords  an  opportunity  for  teachers  to  apply  the  best  prin- 
ciples of  both.  The  paragraph  headings  should  be  thor- 
oughly fixed  in  mind  and  close  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  words  in  heavy  type  and  Italics  that  occur  in  the  body 
of  a  paragraph ;  together  they  form  a  convenient  outline 
for  the  lesson.  The  questions  at  the  end  of  each  lesson  are 
to  be  used  to  test  the  pupils'  mastery  of  the  lesson  material ; 
all  available  works  of  reference  should  be  consulted  for 
fuller  information  than  the  limited  space  of  one  book  will 
admit  of,  each  member  of  the  class  preparing  one  or  more 
abstracts  to  be  read  before  the  class.  The  review  outlines 
and  suggestions  are  to  be  used  in  the  same  way,  special 
attention  being  given  to  written  answers  such  as  would  be 
required  in  an  examination. 

With  a  view  of  furnishing  the  reader  a  considerable 
amount  of  material  on  the  growth  of  music  as  an  art,  bio- 
graphical sketches  have  been  made  short,  especially  since  so 
many  excellent  works  of  that  description  are  available  at 
a  small  price.  Emphasis  has  been  laid  on  the  work  of  the 
men  who  developed  music,  on  the  influences  which  shaped 
their  careers  and  the  permanent  value  of  their  contributions 
to  music.  A  clear  knowledge  of  how  music  reached  its 
present  state  is  not  to  be  had  by  studying  books,  biographical 
and  critical ;  the  works  of  the  composers  must  be  examined, 
played  and  sung,  compared,  analyzed  as  to  methods  of  con- 
struction (Form)  and  expression  (Melody,  Harmony  and 
Rhythm),  so  that  the  student  may  appreciate  the  change 
from  simple,  elementary  processes  to  the  free,  polyphonic 
style  found  in  the  complex  modern  piano  and  orchestral 
scores.     Reference  is  made  to  representative  compositions 

(V) 


VI  PREFACE. 

by  classical  and  modern  composers,  which  are  part  of  the 
average  teaching  repertoire.  The  works  of  the  earlier  com- 
posers are  not,  however,  readily  accessible,  although  good 
examples  of  the  style  of  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries  are  in 
the  cheap  editions  of  Peters,  Litolff,  Augener,  Breitkopf 
and  Hartel,  and  Ricordi. 

The  plan  of  this  book  provides  for  two  lessons  a  week 
for  thirty  weeks.  This  will  occupy  a  school  year  and  allow 
time  for  quizzes,  reviews  and  examinations.  If  more  time 
is  available,  the  work  may  be  divided  into  four,  five  or  six 
terms  and  stress  laid  on  the  study  of  representative  composi- 
tions, the  preparation  of  short  papers  on  the  suggested 
topics,  adding,  as  a  feature  to  interest  friends  and  music 
lovers  generally,  public  programs  including  music. 

Musical  clubs  will  find  in  this  book  material  for  several 
years'  programs,  special  attention  having  been  given  to  the 
lessons  on  modern  composers  and  their  music,  the  sugges- 
tions as  to  class-work  applying  with  equal  force  to  the  study 
classes  of  clubs.  The  individual  reader  should  follow  out 
the  suggested  historical  and  biographical  parallels  which 
help  so  strongly  to  fix  in  the  mind  the  periods  in  which 
composers  lived. 

Lessons  III  to  VI  were  prepared  by  Dr.  H.  A.  Clarke,  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania;  Lessons  VIII  to  XIV  by 
Mr.  Arthur  L.  Judson,  of  Denison  University;  Lessons 
XV  and  XVI  bv  Mr.  Preston  Ware  Orem,  Mus.  Bac,  of 
Philadelphia;  Lessons  XVII  to  XIX,  XXI  to  XXIII, 
XXXVII  to  XL  by  Mr.  Frederic  S.  Law,  of  Philadelphia ; 
Lessons  XXV  to  XXXIII  by  Mr.  Clarence  G.  Hamilton, 
A.  M.,  of  Wellesley  College;'  Lessons  XLI  to  XLVIII  by 
Mr,  Edward  Burlingame  Hill,  A.  B.,  of  Boston;  Lessons 
L  to  LVI  by  Mr.  Arthur  Elson,  of  Boston. 

W.  J.  B. 

NOVKMBER    1,    1905. 

September  1,  190G. 


CONTENTS. 


Preface  v 

Introduction    17 

Lesson  I.    Music    of    the    Chinese,    Japanese    and 

Hindoos   24 

Lesson  IL   Music    of    the    Babylonians,    Egyptians 

AND  Hebrews  35 

Lesson  III.   Music  of  the  Greeks:     Scales 46 

Lesson  IV.    Music  of  the  Greeks   (Concluded) 54 

Lesson  V.    Ecclesiastical  System   61 

Lesson  VI.    Notation     70 

Lesson  VII.    Music  Outside  the  Church 77 

LiEssoN  VIII.  The  Causes  of  Polyphonic  Development 
AND  the  Importance  of  the  Poly- 
phonic Era  88 

Lesson  IX.    The  Paris  School 99 

Lesson  X.    The  Gallo-Belgic  School 107 

Lesson  XI.    The  English   School 115 

Lesson  XII.    The  School  of  the  Netherlands 12'3 

Lesson  XIII.    The  Italian  School 131 

Lesson  XIV.  Palestrina  and  His  Influence  on  the 
Music  of  the  Italian  School.  The 
Madrigal 139 

Lesson  XV.   Musical  Instruments   147 

Lesson  XVI.    The    Organ,    Organ    Playing   and   Organ 

Music     156 

Lesson  XVII.    The  Beginning  of  the  Opera 171 

Lesson        XVIII.   The     Oratorio.       Development     of     the 

Opera 179 

Lesson  XIX.  Alessandro  Scarlatti  and  the  Neapoli- 
tan School 187 

Lesson  XX.    Singing  and  Singers 195 

Lesson  XXI.    Opera  in  France  and  England 203 

Lesson         XXII.   The    Opera    in    Germany.      Handel    and 

Gluck    211 

Lesson        XXIII.   Mozart  to  Rossini 219 

Lesson         XXIV.    The  Oratorio   226 

Lesson  XXV.    The  Evolution  of  the  Pianoforte 236 

Lesson         XXVL   The  Early  Italian  Clavier  Composers  . . .  246 

(vii) 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


Lesson       XXVII.    The  Early  English  and  French  Clavier 

Schools   255 

Lesson  XXVIII.  The  German  Polyphonic  Clavier  Schools  2G3 
Lesson         XXIX.    The  German  Sonata  Composers  to  Haydn  274 

Lesson  XXX.    Franz  Joseph  Haydn 283 

Lesson         XXXI.    Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart 291 

Lesson       XXXII.    Ludwig  van  Beethoven 299 

Lesson     XXXIII.    Beethoven  and  the  Sonata 307 

Lesson        'JCXIV.    The  Violin  and  its  Makers 315 

Lesson       XXXV.    Violin  Playing  and  Violin  ;Music 322 

Lesson      XXXVI.    The  Orchestra  and  Absolute  Music 334 

Lesson    XXXVII.    The    Romantic    Opera.      Weber,     Spohr, 

Marschner   345 

Lesson  XXXVIII.  The  French  School  of  the  19th  Century  353 
Lesson  XXXIX.  The  Italian  School  of  the  19tii  Century  3G1 
Lesson  XL.    Richard  Wagner's  Music  Dramas.    Other 

Schools   3G9 

Lesson  XLI.   Piano  Playing   and   Composition:     Clem- 

ENTi   to   Field 380 

Lesson  XLII.    Franz  Peter  Schubert 391 

Lesson        XLIII.   Weber.    Mendelssohn  397 

Lesson         XLIV.   Robert  Schumann 407 

Lesson  XLV.    Frederic  Chopin  417 

Lesson         XLVI.    Franz  Liszt 425 

Lesson       XLVII.    Pianists  and  Teachers  Since  Liszt.    I . . .  430 
Lesson      XLVIII.    Pianists  and  Teachers  Since  Liszt.    II..  446 
Lesson         XLIX.   The  Art  Song.     Oratorio  after  Mendels- 
sohn     454 

Lesson  L.   The  Symphonic  Poem  in  Germany 463 

Lesson  LI.    German  Opera  Since  Wagner 472 

Lesson  LII.    Old  and  New  Schools  in  France 481 

Lesson  LIII.    Musical  Regeneration  in  Italy 491 

Lesson  LIV.    England  and  the  Netherlands 499 

Lesson              LV.   National    Schools:  Bohemia    and    Scan- 
dinavia      507 

Lesson  LVI.   The  Russian  School ! 515 

Lesson  LVII.   Music  in  the  United  States 525 

Lesson         LVIII.    American    Composers:     Works   in   Large 

Instrumental  Forms    535 

Lesson  LIX.   American     Composers:       Vocal     Forms; 

Piano  and   Geoan. — ^Musical   Litera- 

TUBE    543 

Lesson  LX.   Musical  Education  552 

Index    561 


A  COMPLETE 

HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


INTRODUCTION. 

Purpose  of  the  Study  of  the  History  of  Music. — The  pur- 
pose of  the  study  of  the  history  of  music  is  to  trace  the 
development  of  the  many  phases  which  make  up  modern 
music  which  we  cannot  but  regard  as  a  great  social  force, 
an  intellectual,  an  uphfting  force.  If  we  consider  it  from 
the  material  side,  it  is  one  of  magnitude;  we  need  but 
think  of  the  money  invested  in  buildings,  opera  houses, 
schools,  concert  halls,  publishing  plants,  factories,  the  sums 
spent  on  musical  instruments,  instruction,  concerts,  opera, 
etc.,  to  recognize  the  commercial  side.  When  we  think  of 
the  great  army  of  persons  whose  livelihood  is  conditioned 
upon  musical  work,  upon  the  great  audiences  that  support 
musical  enterprises,  we  recognize  the  magnitude  of  music  in 
a  social  sense,  and  that  it  offers  a  large  field  for  study. 
These  conditions,  interesting  as  they  are,  represent  only 
phases  of  musical  work,  not  Music  itself,  and  serve  to  show 
the  place  which  Music  occupies  in  the  life  of  today.  Our 
investigation  is,  then,  a  consideration  of  the  origin  and 
development  of  Music,  and  the  means  by  which  it  took  shape. 

The  Place  of  Intellect  in  Music. — When  we  think  of  Mu- 
sic we  have  in  mind  an  organization  of  musical  sounds  into 
something  definite,  something  by  design,  not  by  chance,  the 
product  of  the  working  of  the  human  mind  with  musical 
sounds  and  their  effects  upon  the  human  sensibilities.  So 
long  as  man  accepted  the  various  phenomena  of  musical 
sounds  as  isolated  facts,  there  could  be  no  art.  But  when 
he  began  to  use  them  to  minister  to  his  pleasure  and  to 
study  them  and  their  effects,  he  began  to  form  an  art  of 
music.  The  story  of  music  is  the  record  of  a  series  of  at- 
tempts on  the  part  of  man  to  make  artistic  use  of  the 
material  which  the  ear  accepts  as  capable  of  affording  plea- 
sure and  as  useful  in  expressing  the  innermost  feelings. 

(17) 


l8  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

The  raw  material  of  music  consists  of  the  sounds  consid- 
ered musical,  the  human  voice,  various  musical  instruments 
and  the  use  of  this  material  in  such  ways  as  to  affect  the 
human  sensibilities ;  that  is,  to  make  an  impression  upon  the 
hearer  which  shall  coincide  with  that  of  the  original  maker 
of  the  music  who  gives  to  his  feelings  expression  in  music. 
We  find  in  music,  as  in  other  branches,  that  man  tries  to 
reduce  phenomena  to  order  and  to  definite  form.  The  mass 
of  musical  material  is  vague,  incoherent,  disorganized.  Man 
seeks  to  devise  ways  to  use  it  intelligibly,  and  to  promote 
esthetic  pleasure.  If  musical  sounds  are  to  be  combined 
simultaneously  or  successively,  this  combination  should  be 
in  accordance  with  design,  not  haphazard,  just  as  the  builder 
of  the  house  or  the  temple  puts  together  his  material  ac- 
cording to  a  regular  plan.  Those  who  have  been  leaders 
in  the  Art  of  Music  have  labored  in  two  ways:  to  extend 
the  limits  of  expression  in  music,  and  to  find  the  means  to 
contain  that  expression.  At  one  period  stress  is  laid  on 
making  music  expressive,  at  another  on  the  medium  for 
conveying  expression  to  others,  the  latter  being  compre- 
hended in  the  term  Form.  In  connection  with  this  state- 
ment, the  student  will  do  well  to  remember  that  every 
period  of  great  intellectual  activity,  social  or  poHtical,  re- 
acted upon  music  and  the  other  arts;  to  illustrate,  we  need 
but  refer  to  the  formal,  even  artificial  character  of  the  music 
of  the  period  preceding  the  French  Revolution  and  the  free- 
dom and  vigor  imparted  by  the  spirit  of  Romanticism  which 
followed  in  the  wake  of  that  great  political  movement,  a 
difference  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  music  of  Haydn  and 
Beethoven,  Clementi  and  Schumann.  There  is  also  a  con- 
stant action  and  reaction  of  the  various  racial  streams  of 
power  such  as  the  Aryan  on  the  Semitic,  East  upon  the 
West,  Latin  upon  the  Teuton,  Folk-music  upon  the  Scho- 
lastic. 

The  Principles  in  Music. — The  leading  principles  in  music 
are:  Rhythm,  Melody,  Harmony,  Color  or  Tone  Quality, 
and  in  the  execution  of  works  of  music,  Dynamic  Contrast, 
an  essential  factor  in  Expression.    For  ages  after  the  birth 


THE   PRINCIPLES   IN    MUSIC  I9 

of  Music,  Rhythm  and  Melody  were  the  only  real  ele- 
ments, Rhythm  being  first  recognized.  The  potency  of 
Rhythm,  strong  and  irresistible  in  the  early  days  of  the 
race  and  with  primitive  man,  is  still  acknowledged.  Music 
that  lacks  a  clearly-defined  rhythm  does  not  move  the  masses. 
Witness  martial  music,  the  dance  airs  and  the  "popular 
song."  All  primitive  languages  were  characterized  by  con- 
cise, figurative  and  picturesque  qualities ;  they  easily 
changed  from  the  ordinary  into  the  lofty  and  the  impas- 
sioned. Intonation  and  changing  inflection  had  much  to  do 
with  meaning,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Chinese  language  of 
today.  Historians  ascribe  the  origin  of  Melody  to  this  prin- 
ciple of  vocal  expression.  For  years  prior  to  the  Christian 
Era,  and  long  after.  Rhythm  and  Melody  were  the  only  ac- 
cepted elements  of  Music,  and  the  art  remained  in  a  low 
grade  of  development.  It  was  not  until  Harmony  appeared, 
clear  and  unmistakable,  that  Music  was  able  to  claim  a  posi- 
tion equal  to  that  accorded  to  the  sister-arts.  Poetry,  Paint- 
ing, Sculpture  and  Architecture.  These  principles,  Rhythm, 
Melody  and  Harmony,  became,  when  couched  in  the  forms 
of  expression  adopted  by  the  great  masters,  what  we  call 
Modern  Music,  and  the  story  is  one  of  a  development  from 
extreme  simplicity  to  the  complexity  illustrated  in  modern 
orchestral  scores. 

Means  of  Expression. — One  more  phase  must  be  men- 
tioned here,  the  means  used  to  present  to  others  the  thoughts 
or  feelings  of  the  composer,  that  is,  the  human  voice  and 
its  artistic  use,  instruments  of  various  kinds,  their  primitive 
forms  and  gradual  development,  their  use  singly  and  in 
combination  with  other  instruments.  This  phase  is  pecul- 
iarly associated  with  modern  music;  for  it  was  not  until 
the  art  had  freed  itself  from  the  fetters  imposed  by  vocal 
music,  that  absolute  music,  availing  itself  of  perfected  in- 
struments, came  into  its  own.  From  that  time  develop- 
ment was  unprecedentedly  rapid. 

What  is  to  "be  Brought  Forward. — The  history  of  Music 
is,  then,  a  recital  of  facts  bearing  upon  the  development  of 
modern  music    and  we  shall  lay  stress  on  such  facts  as 


20  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

show  a  permaneht  impress  and  a  solid  contribution  to 
progress  in  one  or  more  of  the  Hnes  marked  out:  Form, 
Expression,  Melody,  Rhythm,  Harmony  and  Instrumental 
Color,  In  the  study  of  a  composer,  the  facts  essential  to 
the  history  of  music  are  critical  rather  than  biographical ; 
not  a  life  chronicle  so  much  as  a  clear  statement  of  what 
he  specially  contributed  to  forward  the  art.  To  gain  an 
educational  value,  the  facts  of  the  history  of  music  are  to 
be  studied  so  as  to  glean  from  them  their  significance,  and 
an  understanding  of  the  causes  and  conditions  which  made 
them  possible;  then  we  go  on  to  discern  the  consequences 
to  which  they  in  turn  gave  rise.  No  man  works  for  him- 
self and  out  of  himself.  He  builds  upon  what  others  have 
done,  and  he  builds  for  others.  The  student  should  discern 
the  lesson  in  the  past,  and  receive  guidance  for  the  future. 
What  We  Learn  from  Archaeology. — The  history  of  an 
art  such  as  Music  must  give  the  historical  data  in  connec- 
tion with  the  development  of  art  and  artists,  free  of  all 
questionable  and  false  features,  and  give  as  trustworthy,  as 
accurate  a  picture  of  the  various  stages  as  possible.  If  we 
go  backward  in  our  research  we  reach  a  point  at  which  ordi- 
nary records  fail.  If  we  make  an  inquiry  into  the  beginnings 
of  music  we  must  have  recourse  to  the  findings  and  inter- 
pretations of  Archaeology.  The  results  are  by  no  means 
satisfactory.  In  all  the  digging  in  the  ruins  of  the  once 
great  cities  of  Egypt,  and  Western  Asia,  and  of  Greece  and 
Etruria  as  well,  with  perhaps  one  exception,  no  music  has 
been  brought  to  light,  and  but  a  few  instruments,  and  these 
can  scarcely  be  considered  perfect.  However,  the  pictorial 
representations  on  tombs,  monuments,  temples  and  houses 
give  valuable  aid,  enabling  scholars  to  reconstruct  the  story 
of  music  among  the  older  civilizations.  We  must  not  for- 
get, however,  that  conjecture  plays  a  more  or  less  promi- 
nent part  in  all  the  translations  of  the  old  hieroglyphic 
and  cuneiform  writings.  We  have  no  direct  knowledge  of 
the  scales  used  or  how  the  instruments  were  played  to- 
gether, what  was  the  nature  of  the  science  and  system  in 
use.    What  we  have  is  mere  inference  from  the  nature  of 


THEORIES   AS   TO   THE   ORIGIN    OF    MUSIC.  21 

the  instruments  and  the  representations  of  musicians  play- 
ing their  instruments,  together  with  fragments  from  con- 
temporary or  later  writings. 

What  We  Learn  from  Ethnology. — Another  source  open 
to  students  of  the  beginnings  of  music  is  the  material 
gathered  by  Ethnology.  Those  who  place  stress  on  this 
means  of  research  lay  down  the  proposition  that  the  primi- 
tive people  of  the  world  of  today  occupy  a  mental  and  social 
stage  similar  to  that  of  the  primitive  races  from  which  the 
civilized  folk  of  today  have  sprung.  Therefore,  they  study 
the  music,  the  rude  chants,  the  dances,  the  instruments, 
etc.,  of  various  primitive  tribes,  and  then  by  comparison  try 
to  indicate  the  various  stages  through  which  music  came 
to  have  the  art  germ,  from  which  the  great  product  we 
know  has  developed. 

Some  Theories. — We  can  give  in  this  lesson  only  a  few  of 
the  theories  offered  by  those  who  have  discussed  the  matter 
of  the  origin  of  music :  The  Dance,  Poetry  and  Music  form 
a  group  which  cannot  readily  be  separated ;  they  are  not 
independent  of  each  other,  but  most  intimately  connected. 
This  view  fails  to  take  account  of  the  fact  that  Music  which 
is,  externally,  so  closely  connected  with  the  Dance  and  with 
Poetry,  is,  in  its  essence,  absolutely  distinct.  Schopenhauer, 
the  philosopher  from  whom  Richard  Wagner  drew  inspira- 
tion, holds  this  view  very  strongly.  He  says :  "Music  is 
quite  independent  of  the  visible  world,  is  absolutely  ignor- 
ant of  it,  and  could  exist  in  a  certain  way  if  there  were  no 
world ;  which  cannot  be  said  of  the  other  arts."  The  other 
arts  are  essentially  imitative  and  representative;  they  are 
based  upon  Nature.  Some  writers,  the  Frenchman  Dubos 
and  the  English  philosopher  Herbert  Spencer  among  them, 
claim  that  Music  does  represent  Nature.  They  say  that  as 
the  painter  imitates  the  forms  and  colors  he  sees  in  nature, 
so  the  musician  follows  the  various  modulations  of  the 
voice,  finding  there  the  basic  conceptions  of  Rhythm,  Mel- 
ody and  Color.  Singing,  which  Spencer  considers  the  orig- 
inal music,  is  the  emphasizing  and  intensifying  of  the  prop- 
erties of  speech.     Gurney  says,  per  contra,   that   "Music 


22  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

creates  audible  forms,  successions  and  combinations  of  tones 
which  have  no  prototype  in  Nature  and  do  not  exist  outside 
of  Music."  Those  who  beheve  that  Music  is  a  separate 
entity  therefore  seek  to  trace  it  to  a  completely  independent 
beginning.^  Darwin  offered  another  theory  as  to  the  way 
in  which  man  arrived  at  Music.  His  idea  is  that  the  faculty 
of  producing  musical  tones  and  rhythm  was  first  acquired 
by  our  animal  ancestors  as  a  means  of  attracting  the  op- 
posite sex,  the  faculty  being  developed  and  improved  .by 
the  process  of  selection. 

The  Conception  of  Fixed  Scales. — The  question  is  some- 
times raised :  How  did  man  reach  the  conception  of  fixed 
scales?  Here  again  opinions  differ.  Some  consider  that 
the  extreme  notes  were  fixed  by  the  average  compass  of 
the  human  voice  in  impassioned  speech,  the  interval  being 
variously  divided.  Others  claim  that  along  with  the  vocal 
phase  of  music  there  was  an  instrumental  side,  and  that 
the  mechanical  conditions  in  connection  with  instruments 
had  bearing  in  the  matter  of  organizing  sounds  into  a  scale ; 
the  rude,  primitive  trumpet  of  wood  or  bark,  still  found 
among  forest  tribes  in  South  America  and  Africa,  gives  a 
series  of  harmonic  notes.  Whistles  or  flutes  made  in  pre- 
historic times  with  a  series  of  several  tones,  examples  of 
combinations  of  little  pipes,  such  as  those  known  by  the 
name  of  "Pan's  Pipes,"  also  bear  on  this  question.  Yet  the 
facts  are  few  and  we  are  compelled  to  satisfy  ourselves 
with  mere  conjecture. 

References. 

Tylor. — Anthropology. 
Rowbotham. — History  of  Music. 
Smith.— The  World's  Earliest  Music. 
Grosse. — The  Beginnings  of  Art. 
Raymond. — The  Genesis  of  Art. 
Helmholtz. — The  Sensations  of  Tone. 
Pa^^)^ — Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music. 


*  In  his  work  "The  Power  of  Sound"  Gumey  has  taken  up  in  detail 
Herbert  Spencer's  theory  of  the  origin  of  music. 


QUESTIONS   ON    THE   INTRODUCTION.  23 

Bosanquet. — History  of  Aesthetic. 

Knight. — Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  Part  II,  Chap.  IX. 

Questions  a.nd  Suggestions. 

Why  do  we  consider  music  a  force  in  civilization? 

What  do  we  mean  by  Expression  in  music? 

The  teacher  will  cite  periods  when  "Expression"  was  the 
chief  aim,  when  Form  was. 

Cite  periods  when  intense  political  and  intellectual  up- 
heaval reacted  on  music. 

Give  examples  of  the  leading  principles  of  Music. 

What  kind  of  facts  are  of  importance  to  the  history  of 
Music? 

What  is  the  value  of  Archaeology  to  the  history  of  music  ? 

Why  is  Ethnology  valuable  to  the  history  of  music? 

Give  several  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  music. 

Is  the  scale  used  by  us  the  scale  of  all  nations? 

In  preparing  for  recitation,  students  should  get  an  out- 
line of  each  lesson  by  the  use  of  the  paragraph  headings 
and  then  work  out  the  lesson  by  the  use  of  the  questions 
that  follow.  If  the  reference  books  suggested  are  available, 
additional  reading  should  be  done.  A  good  plan  is  for  the 
teacher  to  assign  one  or  two  paragraphs  to  a  pupil  and  have 
the  latter  bring  in  such  other  information  of  interest  as 
can  be  secured.  Some  questions  may  be  grouped  and  pupils 
directed  to  prepare  a  short  essay  to  be  read  before  the  class, 
in  regard  to  dates,  the  suggestion  is  that  pupils  take  turns, 
lesson  by  lesson,  in  presenting  a  plan  by  which  to  mem- 
orize them.  When  the  period  is  one  that  can  be  related  to 
some  well-known  event  in  general  history,  as  the  life  of 
Charlemagne,  the  Norman  Conquest  of  England,  the  Cru- 
sades, the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  discovery  of  America,  inven- 
tion of  printing,  etc.,  it  is  well  to  do  so;  or  make  a  well- 
known  musician  a  contemporary  of  some  artist,  statesman, 
king,  scientist,  man  of  letters,  etc.  The  teacher  should  be 
prepared  in  this  manner  for  each  lesson.  Events  before  the 
Christian  Era  may  be  related  to  some  event  or  character  in 
Biblical  history. 


LESSON  I. 

Music  of  the  Chinese,  Japanese  and  Hindoos. 

Sources  of  Our  Knowledge. — ^^'hen  we  study  the  music 
of  the  early  period  of  the  human  race,  we  find  no  records 
such  as  we  are  storing  to-day  in  our  libraries.  We  must 
depend  upon  the  discoveries  of  archaeologists  in  the  buried 
cities  of  early  civilizations.  Of  contemporaneous  hooks, 
properly  speaking,  tablets  of  music  explaining  the  con- 
struction and  methods  of  playing  the  musical  instruments 
then  in  use  we  have  few;  if  they  exist  they  are  in  dead 
languages  to  which  scholars  are  but  slowly  finding  the  key. 
It  is  true  that  some  instruments  have  been  found,  but  we 
can  have  no  certainty  that  they  are  in  perfect  condition. 
The  principal  sources  of  the  information  we  possess  have 
been  the  paintings,  decorations  and  sculptures  on  monu- 
ments and  on  the  walls  of  buildings  and  tombs  that  have 
been  unearthed.  Early  languages  were  largely  pictorial,  and 
records  kept  in  this  manner  furnish  us  representations  of 
the  religious,  martial,  and  social  life  of  the  early  races. 

Countries  with  a  Musical  Past. — The  lands  that  offer 
the  greatest  field  for  the  study  of  the  music  of  the  past  are 
Chaldea  or  Babylonia  and  Eg>'pt.  Some  of  the  old  Greek 
cities,  as  w^ell  as  cities  in  the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor 
and  Palestine,  have  been  the  subject  of  explorations.  Still 
another  country  abounding  in  interest  to  the  student  of  the 
music  of  the  past  is  China,  living,  yet  dead !  What  a  con- 
trast to  Chaldea  and  Egypt!  The  civilization  of  the  latter 
is  dead;  China,  the  older,  is  still  living.  These  races  had 
a  common  home,  yet  the  former,  having  developed  a  high 
civilization  and  fulfilled  its  mission,  disappeared  from  the 
face  of  the  earth,  while  China,  having  also  reached  a  high 
state  of  culture,  has  remained  stagnant,  all  energies  toward 
a  higher  level  being  arrested. 
(24) 


MUSIC    AMONG   THE    CHINESE.  25 

The  Common  Home  of  the  Race.  —  Scientists  place  the 
cradle  of  the  human  race  in  the  high  plateau  of  Asia,  ex- 
tending from  Persia  eastward  through  Thibet  and  includ- 
ing part  of  Manchuria.  The  yellow  race,  according  to  some 
ethnologists,  is  the  more  akin  to  the  primitive  race;  the 
other  two,  the  wdiite  and  the  black,  being  derived  from  it  by 
emigration,  change  of  climate  and  mode  of  living.  Van 
Aalst,  the  leading  writer  on  Chinese  Music,  says  that  "the 
first  invaders  of  China  were  a  band  of  immigrants  fighting 
their  way  among  the  aborigines  and  supposed  to  have  come 
from  the  country  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea."  It  is  outside 
the  province  of  this  work  to  detail  the  arguments  that  serve 
to  show  the  connection  of  the  Chinese  with  the  other  races 
mentioned.  Berosus,  the  old  Babylonian  historian,  writes : 
"There  was  originally  in  the  land  of  Babylon  a  multitude 
of  men  of  foreign  race  who  had  settled  in  Chaldea."  These 
men  are  known  in  history  by  the  name  of  Akkads  or  Ak- 
kadians, "from  the  northern  mountains,"  Sumerians,  from 
the  "southern  mountains" ;  that  is,  the  highland  ranges 
lying  to  the  north  and  east  of  the  Euphrates  Valley.  There 
were  two  main  types  among  these  tribes :  a  yellow,  black- 
haired  people,  and  a  red  type.  The  records  show  that  mi- 
grations from  this  central  home  came  about  by  reason  of 
famines,  plagues  or  floods.  When  did  the  black-haired, 
yellow  people  swarm  ofif?  When  did  the  "red"  people, 
from  which  Egyptian  tradition  claimed  ancestry,  go  away? 
Probably  the  Chinese  were  the  first  to  leave  the  central 
home,  taking  with  them  the  elements  of  a  considerable  civi- 
lization, which  also  formed  the  basis  of  the  later  Chaldean, 
Babylonian,  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  cultures,  and  through 
various  channels,  of  the  Etrurian  and  Greek. 

High  Place  of  Music  Among  the  Chinese. — The  science 
of  music  had  a  high  place  in  Chinese  philosophy ;  the  sages 
alone  comprehend  the  canons,  and  the  mandarins  in  music 
are  considered  superior  to  those  in  mathematics.  Some  most 
interesting  dates  are  given,  showing  how  early  the  Chinese 
had  developed  a  science  of  music.  We  are  told  that  in  2277 
B.   C,  there  were  twenty-two  writers  on   the  dance  and 


26  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

music,  twenty-three  on  ancient  music,  twenty-four  on  play- 
ing the  Kin  and  the  Che,  and  twenty-five  on  construction 
of  scales.  These  facts  imply  many  years  of  previous  de- 
velopment before  the  time  when  works  treating  of  the 
science  of  music  would  be  prepared.  Confucius,  the  chief 
Chinese  philosopher,  wrote  about  ancient  music  in  551  B.  C. 
Unfortunately,  ancient  records  and  books  were  almost  en- 
tirely destroyed,  246  B.  C,  by  order  of  the  Emperor  then 
on  the  throne ;  he  excepted  from  this  destruction  only  works 
on  medicine,  agriciilture  and  divination.  A  comparison  of 
recorded  dates  shows  that  the  Chinese  were  writing  learned 
works  on  the  science  of  music  when  the  Pharaohs  were 
building  the  pyramids. 

Sonorous  Bodies.  —  The  Chinese  have  always  shown  a 
fondness  for  instituting  likenesses  between  things  in  heaven 
and  earth,  and  things  intellectual  and  material.  According 
to  their  theory,  there  are  eight  sound-giving  bodies:  Stone, 
Metal,  Silk,  Bamboo,  Wood,  Skin,  Gourd  and  Clay. 

The  Sheng. — One  of  the  most  important  musical  instru- 
ments in  use  among  the  Chinese,  one  that  is  indispensable 
to  their  temple  ritual,  is  the  Sheng.  This  instrument  is  the 
representative  of  the  gourd  principle ;  originally  the  bowl 
was  formed  from  a  portion  of  a  gourd  or  a  calabash,  the 
top  being  covered  by  a  circular  piece  of  wood  with  holes 
around  the  margin  in  which  the  pipes,  seventeen  in  num- 
ber, are  fixed ;  in  the  side  of  the  gourd  is  placed  a  mouth- 
piece or  tube  covered  with  ivory,  through  which  the  player 
draws  his  breath.  Each  pipe  is  fitted  with  a  small  free 
reed  of  copper.  A  small  hole  is  made  in  each  pipe  just 
above  the  bowl,  which  prevents  a  pipe  from  speaking  when 
the  air  is  drawn  in  by  the  player,  unless  the  hole  is  closed 
by  a  finger.  The  instrument  is  placed  to  the  mouth  with  the 
pipes  slanting  toward  the  right  shoulder.  The  notes  sounded 
iDy  the  pipes  of  the  Sheng  as  they  are  arranged  are : 


CHINESE    MUSICAL    INSTRUMENTS. 

giving  the  following  scale  or  series  of  sounds : 


27 


four  of  the  seventeen  pipes  are  mutes,  placed  there  doubt- 
less for  purposes  of  symmetry. 

The  Kin. — The  principle  of  the  sound  of  silk  is  exem- 
plified in  the  Kin  or  Ch'in,  the  strings,  "made  of  twisted  silk, 
being  stretched  over  a  w^ooden  frame."  This  instrument 
was  the  favorite  of  Confucius,  the  great  law-giver,  and  in 


Kin. 


Se  or  Che. 


Shenq. 


his  time  was  of  great  antiquity.  The  number  of  strings  was 
five,  to  agree  with  the  five  elements ;  the  upper  part  was 
rounded,  to  represent  the  heavens ;  the  bottom  was  flat,  to 
represent  the  ground.  The  number  of  strings  was  later  in- 
creased to  seven,  which  is  the  favored  form,  tuned  to  G,  A, 
C,  D,  E,  G,  A,  a  pentatonic  scale. 


28  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

The  Se. — Another  stringed  instrument  is  the  Sc,  (also 
written  Che),  which  had  originally  fifty  strings.  As  now 
used,  it  has  only  twenty-five  strings.  Four  kinds  are  in  use, 
diff"ering  in  size  and  in  number  of  strings ;  it  is  customary 
that  they  should  give  the  sound  of  two  notes  simultaneously, 
generally  octaves.  Some  of  these,  used  by  the  most  skilful 
performers,  have  only  thirteen  or  fourteen  strings.  The 
strings  are  plucked  by  two  small  ivory  picks. 

Flutes. — The  sound  of  bamboo  is  exemplified  in  certain 
instruments  of  the  flute  family.  The  bamboo  plant  is  used 
by  the  Chinese  in  very  many  ways ;  it  is  natural  that  they 
should  use  it  for  making  musical  instruments.  There  are 
two  types  of  pipes  or  flutes :  those  blown  at  the  end,  as  a 
whistle,  and  those  blown  across  a  hole  near  one  end,  as  is 
our  modern  flute;  the  Chinese  flutes  are  of  the  latter  class. 
They  varied  in  size  and  in  the  number  of  holes,  from  three 
to  six,  the  little  finger  of  each  hand  not  being  used.  A  pop- 
ular flute,  called  the  Ti-Tzu,  has,  in  addition  to  the  six  finger 
holes,  one  for  blowing  and  one  covered  with  a  thin  mem- 
brane, to  vary  the  sound.  Another  kind,  very  ancient,  and 
much  in  use,  according  to  Chinese  writers  during  the  period 
2205-1122  B.  C,  may  be  called,  shortly,  the  Tche.     It  has 


^^^^^M 


g      4       ? 


TCIIE. 

six  finger  holes,  three  near  each  end,  and  is  pierced  with 
another  hole  at  the  middle,  across  which  the  player  blows. 
The  scale  is  said  to  consist  of  six  semitones,  beginning  with 
F,  fifth  line  treble  clef.  The  peculiar  construction  of  this 
flute  presents  some  acoustical  problems. 

Other  sonorous  bodies  are,  metal  from  which  the  Chinese 
make  gongs,  bells  and  trumpets — they  seem  to  have  known 
the  principle  of  the  slide,  as  in  the  trombone,  but  never 
developed  it;  stone,  certain  varieties,  in  the  shape  of  the 
letter  L,  pierced  with  a  hole  at  the  angle,  suspended  in  a 
frame  and  struck  by  a  hammer;    skin,  from  which  drums 


MUSIC   AMONG   THE    JAPANESE. 


29 


were  made;    clay,   from  which  instruments  were  made  in 
shape  resembling  the  ocarina,  famihar  to  us. 

Chinese  Scales. — The  vocal  and  the  instrumental  music 
have  different  scales,  the  former  diatonic — with  two  notes 
of  the  seven  omitted,  forming  a  pentatonic  (five-tone  scale), 
the  letters  of  which,  since  F  is  a  favorite  tonic,  may  be  rep- 
resented by  F,  G,  A,  C,  D.  The  instrumental  scales  are 
chromatic  in  character.  When  the  voice  is  accompanied  by 
instruments,  the  vocal  scale  is  used.  Singing  is  in  unison, 
modified  by  fourths,  occasionally.  The  singing  tone  is  a 
sort  of  nasal  sing-song,  the  favorite  method  a  nasal  falsetto, 
the  mouth  being  nearly  closed. 


This  represents  the  concluding  strophes  of  the  Hymn  to 
Confucius.  The  time  is  very  slow;  each  measure  repre- 
sents a  line  of  four  syllables ;  between  the  lines  one  of  the 
instruments  gives  a  sort  of  interlude. 

So  much  space  has  been  taken  with  Chinese  music  be- 
cause the  conservatism  of  that  race  has  preserved  instru- 
ments and  music  that  date  back  to  the  early  history  of  our 
race. 

Japanese  Music. — In  the  Japanese  system  we  find  a  pen- 
tatonic scale  and  a  semitonal  division  of  the  octave.  Jap- 
anese music  does  not  proceed  in  semitones,  the  chromatic 
scale  being  demanded  by  the  custom  of  transposing  a  mel- 
ody from  one  starting  point  to  another,  not  more  than  four- 
teen sounds  for  a  melody.  A  favorite  Japanese  instrument 
is  of  the  clarinet  type ;  it  is  called  the  Hichi-riki ;  in  length 
it  varies  from  a  little  less  than  nine  inches  to  a  little  more. 
The  scale  as  set  forth  by  the  Institute  of  Tokio  is  from  G, 
second  line,  treble  staff  to  the  A  above,  F,  fifth  line,  being 
sharped.  This  instrument  is  played  by  drawing  in  the 
breath.     The  Japanese  have  an  instrument  called  the  Sho, 


30 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 


similar  to  the  Chinese  Sheng.     The  national  instrument  is 
the  Koto,  which  has  thirteen  strings,  tuned  thus:    the  first, 


Koto. 


middle  C  sharp,  the  second,  F  sharp  a  fifth  lower ;  subse- 
quent strings  ascend  in  order,  G  sharp,  A,  C  sharp,  D,  F 
sharp,  G  sharp.  A,  C  sharp,  D,  F  sharp,  G  sharp;  between 
the  fourth  and  fifth  sounds  is  a  third,  which  interval,  in 
practice,  was  filled  by  pressing  the  string  behind  the  bridge, 
thus  increasing  the  tension ;  each  string  can  be  raised  a 
semitone  or  even  a  tone  by  increasing  the  pressure.  By  this 
means  additional  notes  can  be  secured,  giving  a  scale  iden- 
tical with  the  Greek  Dorian  or  ecclesiastical  Aeolian.  Much 
of  the  popular  Japanese  music  is  written  without  the  extra 
notes,  and  the  series  of  tones  can  be  characterized  as  a 
pentalonic  scale  based  on  the  natural  minor.     Thus : 


The  Hindoos. — Among  the  Asiatic  races  that  still  retain 
national,  although  not  a  separate  political  existence,  and 


MUSIC   AMONG   THE    HINDOOS. 


31 


have  a  musical  system  peculiar  to  themselves,  the  Hindoos 
are  prominent.  The  Hindoos  belong  to  the  Aryan  race, 
(from  which  we  also  sprang),  and  had  their  home  originally 
in  Central  Asia,  probably  north  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh  range. 
When  they  swarmed  off  from  the  old  home  they  made  their 
way  down  through  the  mountains  along  the  river  valleys 
to  the  great  fertile  plains  of  India,  and-Conquering  the  abor- 
iginal races,  developed  the  system  of  caste,  which  has  had 
so  great  an  influence  on  their  religion,  literature,  science  and 
art.  The  old  Hindoo  literature  shows  clearly  the  high  re- 
gard in  which  the  art  of  song  was  held.  Celebrated  min- 
strels were  maintained  in  the  royal  courts  whose  duty  it 
was  to  chant  songs  in  praise  of  their  patrons.  Music,  or 
song,  was  just  as  indispensable  in  the  religious  ceremonies. 
One  of  the  holy  books  makes  the  statement  that  "Indra  re- 
jects the  offering  made  without  music."  In  time  the  singer 
became  a  member  of  the  priestly  caste. 

The  Vina. — From  antiquity  to  the  present  time  among 
the  Hindoos  pure  instrumental  music  held  almost  equal 
place  with  song  or  accompanied  vocal  music.    The  Hindoo 


„,  _  .1      I  afr  m/^'if 

y/.-/////'w  m  w  'ivr//r///>-'/r-?/7rfi7r-!7!rw^/^-ajir:. 


Vina. 


Ravanastbon. 


32  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

instruments  belong  to  the  percussion  types,  trumpets  and 
trombones,  nose  flute,  and  especially  to  the  stringed  class. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  the  simpler  kinds,  in  which  each 
string  gives  but  one  tone,  do  not  exist,  whereas  there  are 
many  varieties  of  those  which  have  fingerboards.  The  oldest 
and  most  important  is  the  Vina,  wdiich  consists  of  a  wooden 
pipe  about  four  feet  long  attached  to  two  gourds  or  reso- 
nators. The  seven  metal  strings  are  stretched  over  nineteen 
bridges  or  frets,  becoming  gradually  higher,  and  touch  only 
the  last  and  highest  one.  The  other  eighteen  serve  to  fix  the 
pitch  of  the  tone  desired,  as  in  our  guitar  or  mandolin,  the 
strings  being  set  in  vibration  by  being  plucked  with  a  metal 
thimble  or  ring  like  that  used  by  zither  players.  Another 
Hindoo  instrument,  considered  by  some  as  the  prototype  of 
stringed  instruments  played  with  a  bow',  is  the  Ravanastron. 
Hindoo  Musical  Philosophy. — Hindoo  myths  ascribe  a  di- 
vine origin  to  music.  A  close  connection  was  established 
between  the  scale  and  their  religious  ideas.  Each  single  tone 
was  under  the  protection  of  a  nymph,  and  the  first  syllables 
of  the  names  of  these  nymphs,  according  to  Clement,  the 
French  historian,  were  given  to  the  tones,  thus :  Sa,  Ri,  Ga, 
Ma,  Pa,  Da,  Ni,  seven  in  all,  differing  in  that  respect  from 
the  pentatonic  form  usually  found  among  the  early  races. 
In  their  endeavor  to  satisfy  the  melody  of  speech,  the  inflec- 
tions of  the  voice  in  speaking,  the  Hindoos  divided  the  in- 
terval of  the  octave  into  small  parts,  and  transposed  the 
scale  freely  up  and  down ;  so  it  is  easily  conceivable  that 
their  complete  system  recognized  960  scales,  their  sacred 
writings  speaking  of  16000.  In  practice  they  contented 
themselves  with  36,  some  writers  say  y2.  The  following  is 
given  as  the  scale: 


The  principal  feature  of  Hindoo  music  is  the  melody  and 
rhythm,  the  latter  being  very  complicated.     Of  harmony  in 


MUSIC   AMONG    THE    HINDOOS.  33 

our  sense  of  the  word  there  is  no  sign.  In  accompanying 
the  voice  the  Hindoos  used  only  the  pure  fifth,  which  they 
considered  a  perfect  consonance,  the  fourth,  an  imperfect 
consonance,  and  the  octave. 

High  Esteem  of  Music  Among;  the  Hindoos. — Music  had  a 
high  place  among  the  Hindoos,  all  festivities  made  use  of 
it,  and  the  private  and  social  life  demanded  it.  It  was  used 
freely  in  the  Hindoo  drama,  the  latter  calling  for  the  dance, 
spoken  and  sung  dialogue  and  instrumental  music  and  songs. 
The  main  reason  why  Hindoo  music  did  not  develop  in  the 
past  centuries  doubtless  lies  in  the  fact  that,  as  in  Egypt,  tlie 
ruling  power  was  vested  in  the  priesthood,  which  controlled 
all  the  arts  and  sciences.  Music  was  so  interwoven  with  their 
religious  rites  and  observances,  and  so  hedged  around  with 
irrevocable  and  sacred  laws  that  the  slightest  alteration  was 
considered  a  sacrilege.  In  closing  this  section  it  may  be 
added  that  investigators  refer  the  gipsies,  particularly  those 
of  Hungary,  who  are  noted  for  their  musical  temperament, 
to  Hindoo  origin,  probably  the  pariah  caste.  Their  music, 
with  its  wild,  free  rhythm  and  elaborate  melodic  embel- 
lishment, has  a  marked  resemblance  to  the  music  of  the 
Hindoos. 

References. 

Smith. — The  World's  Earliest  Music. 

Anderson. — The  Story  of  Extinct  Civilizations. 

Rice. — What  is  Music? 

Piggott. — Music  and  Musical  Instruments  of  Japan. 

Day. — Musical  Instruments  of  the  Deccan. 

Questions. 

What  is  the  source  of  our  information  as  to  the  begin- 
nings of  music? 

What  countries  are  being  explored  by  archaeologists? 
Where  was  the  cradle  of  the  human  race? 
Which  branch  was  probably  the  first  to  "swarm  off"  ? 
How  ancient  are  some  Chinese  records  concerning  music? 


34  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

What  are  the  sound-giving  bodies  according  to  Chinese 
theories  ? 

Give  an  example  of  each  kind. 

Describe  the  Sheng,  Kin,  Che  and  Tche. 

What  kind  of  scale  is  used  in  Chinese  vocal  music? 

What  is  the  Japanese  national  instrument  ? 

What  kinds  of  instruments  did  the  Hindoos  have?  Their 
favorite  instrument?     Describe  the  latter. 

Tell  about  the  Hindoo  scale. 

Why  did  music  among  the  Hindoos  fail  to  develop .-- 


LESSON  II. 

Music  of  the  Babylonians,  Egyptians  and  Hebrews. 

History  a  Kecord  of  Change. — History  is  a  record  of 
changing  conditions.  Nations  rise  into  prominence  and  fall 
again ;  cities  are  built  to  be  torn  down  by  conquerors ;  even 
the  face  of  the  earth  has  changed  since  the  days  when  the 
scions  of  the  Aryan  race  began  to  leave  their  home  in  Cen- 
tral Asia.  Arms  of  the  sea  have  shrunk  to  rivers,  rivers  to 
shallow  streams,  the  desert  sands  have  encroached  on  the 
once  fertile  valleys,  and  choked  the  springs  and  brooks  of 
the  meadows.  Geologists  tell  us  that  the  great  valleys  were 
made  by  the  alluvial  deposit  washed  down  from  the  hills 
and  mountains  by  the  streams.  The  Chinese  followed  the 
course  of  the  great  rivers  that  made  toward  the  eastern  seas, 
the  Hindoos  toward  the  southern  ocean,  and  still  another 
"swarm"  followed  the  great  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
which  came  from  the  mountains  of  Western  Asia.  The 
great  valley  lying  between  the  desert  and  the  mountains,  a 
scene  of  waste  and  ruin  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  ancient 
Greece  and  Rome,  was  once  a  most  important  centre  of  pop- 
ulation and  wealth,  the  home  for  centuries  of  races  that  had 
reached  a  high  degree  of  culture  in  the  arts  and  sciences, 
and  the  seat  of  what  may  be  considered  the  oldest  of  ex- 
tinct civilizations.  The  valley  was  wonderfully  fertile,  was 
brought  to  a  high  degree  of  cultivation  and  supported  an 
enormous  population.  As  an  instance  of  the  physical 
changes  that  have  taken  place  in  this  region,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  about  4000  B.  C,  the  Tigris  and  the  Eu- 
phrates entered  the  sea  by  different  mouths,  instead  of  join- 
ing as  now  and  in  the  days  of  Abraham,  the  patriarch,  who 

(35) 


36  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

came  from  this  region,  and  the  town  identified  by  modei  n 
scholars  as  "Ur  of  the  Chaldees,"  wliicli  is  now  150  miies 
up  the  Euphrates,  was  an  important  seaport. 

The  Chaldeans. — When  the  Aryans  came  down  into  this 
valley  they  found  already  established  chere  a  people  whose 
records  are  now  being  unearthed,  called  Akkads,  belonging 
to  the  Mongolian  family,  who  had  reached  a  high  degree  of 
cultivation  in  art  and  science.  The  records  found  show  that 
music  was  an  important  branch  of  study ;  at  a  very  early 
date  the  harp,  pipe  and  cymbals  are  mentioned,  and  w'e  infer 
that  the  people  were  fond  of  singing,  since  many  sacred 
hymns  have  been  recorded  in  tablets.  This  race,  joined  to 
others,  founded  the  Chaldean  kingdom,  the  capital  being 
Babylon.  In  the  12th  century  B.  C,  a  king  of  Assyria,  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  Tigris  valley,  conquered  Babylon 
and  thus  gained  the  ascendancy. 

The  Practice  of  Music  Among  the  Babylonians. — In  the 
great  ruins  now  being  excavated,  tablets  of  clay  have  been 
found  which  give  a  vivid  idea  of  die  social  and  religious 
esteem  in  which  music  was  held  by  the  Babylonians.  One 
of  these  tablets,  said  to  date  back  more  than  three  thousand 
years  B.  C,  contains  a  representation  of  musicians.  One 
strikes  with  a  hammer  upon  a  metal  plate,  another  carries  a 
feed  pipe,  a  third  plays  upon  a  harp  of  eleven  strings,  while 
two  others  beat  time  or  give  the  accent  by  clapping  their 
hands.  Especially  rich  in  sculpture  is  the  palace  of  Sennach- 
erib. One  of  the  relief  decorations  shows  a  festival  proces- 
sion in  honor  of  the  returning  conqueror.  In  front  walk  five 
men,  three  with  harps,  a  fourth  with  a  kind  of  lyre,  whose 
strings  were  struck  with  a  plectrum ;  the  fifth  bears  a  double 
flute.  Two  of  the  harpers  and  the  lyre  player  dance.  Then 
follow  six  women,  of  whom  four  carry  harps,  one  blows  a 
double  flute,  while  the  last  beats  a  sort  of  drum.  Following 
the  instrumentalists  come  six  women  and  six  children  sing- 
ing, who  indicate  the  rhythm  by  clapping  their  hands. 
From  the  fact  that  in  these  sculptures  a  few  soldiers  indi- 
cate an  army,  we  infer  that  the  Babylonians  made  use  of 
large  bodies  of  players  and.  singers  in  their  great  ceremonies. 


MUSIC    AMONG   THE   BABYLONIANS. 


Z7 


These  tablets  indicate  that  the  Babylonians  made  much  use 
of  trumpets  to  give  signals  to  the  armies  and  when  great 
masses  of  the  people  were  gathered  together.  That  musi- 
cians were  highly  esteemed  we  judge  from  the  fact  that  on 
one  occasion  Sennacherib  spared  the  lives  of  musicians 
among  his  captives,  all  others  being  put  to  death.  Since 
the  Chaldeans,  especially,  were  famous  as  astronomers  and 
mathematicians,  it  is  thought  that  they,  like  the  Egyptian 
sages,  had  knowledge  of  the  mathematical  relations  of  the 
various  intervals. 

Chaldean  Instruments.  —  Two  instruments  seem  to  be 
especially  noticeable :  the  Symphonia  and  Sambuca.  The 
former  was  carried  to  Palestine  by  the  Hebrews,  at  the  end 
of  their  captivity,  and,  according  to  their  accounts,  seems 
to  have  been  a  sort  of  bagpipe,  an  instrument  particularly 
suited  to  a  pastoral  people  like  the  early  Chaldeans,  As  to 
the  Sambuca  we  have  no  authentic  knowledge;  it  seems, 
however,  to  have  been  an  instrument  of  the  zither  type,  held 


AssYBiAN  Hakp   (Sambuca). 


Santib. 


81177 


38  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

horizontaHy  and  played  with  a  plectrum.'  A  stringed  in- 
strument, struck  with  a  hammer,  called  the  Santir  is  credited 
to  the  Assyrians. 

Egyptian  Music. — When  the  great  Alexandrian  Library  of 
495,000  works  of  Persian,  Chaldean,  Hebrew,  Egyptian, 
Greek  and  Roman  literature  was  partly  destroyed  during 
Julius  Caesar's  battles  with  the  native  Egyptians,  in  47  B.  C, 
and  finally,  A.  D.  391,  by  Christian  fanatics,  history  suf- 
fered an  irreparable  loss.  Treasures  of  learning  in  all 
branches,  the  records  of  early  civilizations  perished,  never 
to  be  replaced.  Today  we  are  dependent  upon  the  dis- 
coveries of  explorers  in  the  ruins  of  the  great  Egyp- 
tian cities,  temples,  tombs  and  pyramids.  The  Egyptians 
believed  that  articles  of  necessity  to  the  living  being  were 
necessary  to  the  individual  in  a  future  existence.  If  certain 
things  could  not,  in  reality,  be  placed  in  the  tomb,  a  pictorial 
representation  would  have  almost  equal  value  in  the  invisible 
world.  In  Egyptian  tombs  pipes  or  "flutes"  have  been 
found,  and  in  one  instance,  in  the  tomb  of  a  musician,  the 
bronze  cymbals  he  played  when  alive.  In  the  various  tombs 
and  ruins  that  have  been  examined  by  explorers,  pictorial 
representations  of  practically  every  phase  of  Egyptian  life 
have  been  found.  The  sources  for  our  knowledge,  almost 
wholly  inferential,  are,  then,  the  various  pictorial  and  sculp- 
tured representations  of  the  Egyptian  musical  instruments 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  were  used,  and  a  few  frag- 
ments of  their  sacred  books,  which  were  forty-two  in  num- 
ber, two  being  devoted  to  music,  although  but  one  fragment 
has  been  found.  It  must  be  noted,  further,  that  the  Egyptian 
Government,  although  nominally  a  monarchy,  limited,  not 
absolute,  was  in  reality  theocratic.  The  priestly  caste  had 
final  power,  and  the  rules  and  regulations  drawn  up  by 
them  prescribed  the  minutest  detail  of  life,  crushing  all 
possibility  ot  independent  thought  and  freedom  of  action, 
a  condition  fatal  to  high  artistic  development. 


*  Stainer,  in  "Music  of  the  Bible,"  inclines  to  believe  that  the  Sam- 
buca  was  a  large  harp  of  the  kind  used  in  Egypt. 


MUSIC    AMONG    THE    EGYPTIANS.  39 

Place  of  Music  in  Egyptian  Life. — To  show  the  place  of 
music  in  Egyptian  life,  the  following  from  Ambros'  history 
will  serve  admirably:  "From  these  decorations  [on  the  walls 
of  tombs]  we  perceive  that  the  Egyptians  made  great  use 
of  music.  We  find  harps  of  many  sizes  and  shapes,  small 
and  easily  portable,  to  others  beyond  the  height  of  a  man, 
crude  and  of  the  utmost  simplicity,  to  others  elaborate  and 
extremely  rich  in  decoration.  We  note  an  almost  endless 
variety  of  lyres,  guitars  and  mandolins  [that  is,  similar  in 
type  to  the  instruments  we  know  by  these  names],  single 
and  double  flutes,  played  by  hands  of  numerous  musicians, 
together  with  male  and  female  singers.  Music  was  used  to 
accompany  the  dance,  the  funeral  cortege,^  the  banquet  and 
other  social  functions.  Inscriptions  show  that  there  were 
musicians  of  high  social  position  at  the  court." 

Egyptian  Instruments. — The  records  show  a  development 
of  music  from  a  crude  simplicity  in  early  days  to  a  brilliant 
and  complex  system  alongside  of  the  changes  in  other  arts 
and  the  sciences,  some  of  the  discoveries  going  as  far  back 
as  1625  B.  C.  We  give  illustrations  of  several  forms  of  the 
Egyptian  harps.  The  number  of  strings  varied  from  three 
or  four  to  twenty-one.  Mr.  J.  F.  Rowbotham,  the  English 
historian  of  music,  says  that  "taking  B  below  the  bass  staff 
as  the  lowest  note  of  the  Egyptian  scale,  (since  it  likely  fol- 
lowed the  Assyrian  in  this  respect)  the  compass  of  the  great 
harp  would  extend  to  E,  first  line,  treble  staff.  The  small 
harps  of  various  sizes  had  a  compass  from  D,  third  line,  bass 
staff,  to  D  or  E  above  the  treble  staff.  Another  series  of 
stringed  instruments,  known  under  the  general  name,  lyres, 
had  the  same  compass  as  the  small  harps;   the  lutes  had  a 


*  Masp^ro,  the  Egyptologist,  says  that  after  the  tomb  has  been 
sealed,  the  family  and  guests  return  to  the  house  of  the  deceased,  to  a 
banquet,  after  which  the  "last  link  which  holds  the  dead  to  the 
family  is  broken.  The  sacred  harpist  plays  a  prelude,  then,  standing 
before  a  statue  of  the  deceased,  chants  the  dirge  first  sung  long  ago 
at  the  funeral  of  the  Pharaoh  Antouf:  'The  world  is  but  perpetual 
movement  and  change.  .  .  .  Not  all  the  lamentations  in  the 
world  will  restore  happiness  to  the  man  who  is  in  the  sepulchre; 
make  then  a  good -day  and  do  not  be  idle  in  enjoying  thyself.' " 


40 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 


low  G,  (bass)  string,  and  the  highest  note  was  C  or  D  on 
the  treble  staff;  various  forms  of  the  flutes  had  about  the 
same  compass;  pipes,  [which  may  be  represented  by  the 
flageolet  of  today]  had  a  compass  of  about  one  octave  up- 
ward from  E,  fourth  space,  treble  clef.  Other  instruments 
were  of  the  percussion  character,  tambourines,  drums,  cym- 

HoBizoNTAL  Harp. 


Small  Habp. 


Great  Harp. 


bals,  etc.  Although  the  Egyptians  used  their  instruments 
in  combination,  there  is  reason  to  believe  their  practice  was 
the  alternation  of  groups,  only  occasionally  using  all  simul- 
taneously, to  secure  fulness  and  power  of  tone." 

Philosophy  and  Practice  of  Egyptian  Music. — The  con- 
sensus of  opinion  is  that  Egyptian  music  was  melodic  in 


MUSIC   AMONG   THE    HEBREWS.  4I 

character,  the  instruments  or  voices  playing-  or  singing  in 
different  octaves,  rejecting  other  intervals.  As  the  Greeks 
seem  to  have  drawn  from  the  Egyptians  much  of  their  prac- 
tice in  music,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  would 
have  used  harmony  if  the  Egyptians  had  been  accustomed  to 
make  use  of  it.  As  to  the  Egyptian  theory  of  music  we  have 
no  information.  Since,  however,  Pythagoras,  the  Greek 
philosopher,  was  a  student  of  the  Egyptian  school  for  priests, 
we  infer  that  his  teachings  were  founded  on  the  science  he 
acquired  there ;  hence  it  is  probable  that  the  Egyptians  were 
familiar  with  a  seven-fold  division  of  the  octave  and  the 


Tbansverse  Flute.  Double  Flute. 

mathematical  relations  of  the  fourth  and  fifth,  as  well  as 
other  intervals  of  the  scale.  Of  the  old  Egyptian  hymns  wc 
have  no  remains  unless  it  be,  as  some  assert,  that  fragments 
still  exist  among  the  Coptic  Christians. 

The  Hebrews. — What  a  wonderful  history  is  that  of  the 
Hebrews !  It  has  seen  nation  after  nation  rise  to  power  and 
go  down.  It  has  been  enslaved,  seemingly  beyond  all  pos- 
sibility of  recovering  a  national  existence,  yet  regained  place. 
Egypt,  Assyria,  Persia,  Rome,  held  the  Hebrews,  yet  the 
latter  are  still  with  us,  as  a  distinct  race,  while  their  con- 
querors have  but  pages  of  history.  A  glance  at  the  history 
of  the  race  will  show  that  they  touched  the  sources  of  early 


42  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

civilization.  Abraham  ^vas  a  resident,  according  to  the  Bible 
story,  of  Ur  in  the  land  of  the  Chaldees,  where  a  consider- 
able civilization  had  been  attained.  From  here  he  went  to 
Canaan,  thence  to  Egypt,  and  back  again  to  the  country 
east  of  the  Red  Sea.  When  his  descendants  went  to  Egypt 
they  must  have  carried  with  them  Syrian  music  and  instru- 
ments, doubtless  preserving  a  trace  of  Chaldean  influence. 
It  was  during  the  four  centuries'  sojourn  in  Egypt  that  the 
Hebrews,  though  for  a  time  enslaved,  gained  the  propor- 
tions of  a  nation.  As  their  duties  placed  them  in  close  rela- 
tions to  their  masters,  they  gained  considerable  of  the  Egyp- 
tian science,  literature,  customs,  etc.  At  that  time,  musicians 
were  slaves,  and  tradition  says  that  Miriam,  the  sister  of 
Moses,  was  a  slave  dancing-girl  and  singer.  We  know  that 
Moses  was  instructed  in  the  learning  of  the  Egyptian  priest- 
hood, and  in  that  capacity  officiated  in  some  of  the  functions 
of  the  temple  services.  Such  facts  as  these  go  far  to  justify 
the  idea  that  the  Hebrews  gained  their  fundamental  notions 
of  music  and  musical  instruments  during  their  long  sojourn 
in  Egypt.  Some  writers  claim  that  the  songs  of  the  He- 
brews were  adapted  to  Egyptian  chants.  The  pastoral  life 
led  by  the  descendants  of  Abraham,  the  period  of  slavery 
which  the  Hebrews  suffered  in  Egypt,  and  the  subsequent 
migratory  life  in  the  wilderness  were  not  adapted  to  develop 
a  people's  song.  The  life  in  Palestine  for  many  years  was 
a  strenuous  one ;  and  then  came  another  period  of  slavery 
among  the  Assyrians,  by  which  the  Hebrew  ideas  were 
again  modified. 

A  Beligious  People. — The  Hebrews  were  an  intensely  re- 
ligious people,  the  code  delivered  to  them  by  Moses  fixing 
the  status  of  music  up  to  the  time  of  the  pleasure-loving 
Solomon.  Their  music,  in  distinction  from  that  of  the  na- 
tions around  them,  was  not  sensuous  but  a  true  musica  sacra, 
in  this  respect  more  a  matter  of  religion  than  of  art.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  David,  the  Levites  were  organized  as  the 
singers  for  the  Temple  services.  Music  and  poetry  w-ere  the 
chief  subjects  of  instruction.  David  himself  composed  many 
of  the  tunes  to  which  his  Psalms  were  sung. 


MUSIC   AMONG   THE    HEBREWS.  43 

Hebrew  Poetry  and  Its  Relation  to  Their  Music. — The 
key  to  the  music  of  the  Hebrews  is  their  poetry.  They 
grew  to  numbers  under  the  most  adverse  circumstances,  and 
developed  a  temperament  indifferent  to  environment  and 
elevated  to  high  spiritual  aspiration,  making  them  an  in- 
tensely religious  people,  whose  life  was  little  softened  by 
artistic  practice.  The  effect  of  the  injunction  against  the 
making  of  "graven  images,"  as  given  them  in  the  code  of 
Moses,  was  to  cut  them  off  from  the  exercise  of  the  esthetic 
faculty  in  sculpture  or  painting;  their  unsettled  mode  of 
life  prevented  outlet  in  architecture.  So  they  poured  out 
the  whole  strength  of  their  passionate,  powerful  natures  in 
poetry  and  song.  The  most  striking  characteristic  of  the 
Hebrew  poetry  is  the  parallelism  of  the  phrases,  each  sen- 
tence or  complete  thought  being  made  up  of  two  similar  or 
contrasted  thoughts,  and  the  accompanying  music  must  have 
had  the  same  character.  The  following  from  the  Psalms 
shows  this  feature: 

"Lord,  hear  my  voice :  let  thine  ears  be  attentive  to  the 
voice  of  my  supplication." 

*T  will  not  give  sleep  to  my  eyes,  or  slumber  to  mine 
eyelids." 

When  the  great  choirs  of  men  singers  were  organized  for 
the  Temple  services,  this  parallelism  brought  about  the  divi- 
sion into  two  bodies,  who  sang  alternately,  a  practice  in  use 
today  in  certain  churches  with  ritualistic  services,  and  known 
as  antiphonal  singing. 

Hebrew  Music. — It  is  unfortunate  that  we  have  no  reason 
to  believe  that  the  hymns  in  use  in  the  Jewish  synagogues 
today  are  sung  to  the  tunes  of  thousands  of  years  ago,  even 
if  modified.  In  the  various  countries  of  Europe,  Spain, 
Italy,  Germany,  Russia,  the  airs  are  quite  different,  sug- 
gesting that  tradition  has  failed  to  deliver  anything  that 
can  be  traced  to  the  days  of  the  poet-king  of  Israel.  Some 
authorities  find  in  the  Gregorian  chants  traces  of  Hebrew 
melodies  which  came  down  from  the  early  Christians  of 
Jewish  birth  and  training.  Clement  of  Alexandria  says  that 
their  songs  were  earnest  and  dignified ;    there  must  have 


44  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

been  some  special  character  in  them  as  shown  hy  the  com- 
mand of  the  Babylonians,  "Sing  us  the  songs  of  Zion."  The 
principal  relation  that  the  llel)rc\vs  have  to  the  history  of 
music  arises  from  the  enduring  impress  the  works  of  the 
Psalmist  and  other  portions  of  the  Scriptures  have  made 
upon  the  music  of  the  Christian  Church. 

Hebrew  Instruments. — The  Hebrews  borrowed  their  in- 
struments from  other  nations,  principally  from  the  Egyp- 
tians, the  one  most  favored  being  a  form  of  the  harp,  small 
enough  to  be  portable,  used  to  give  effect  to  the  chanting 
of  the  prophets.  "To  prophesy  meant  to  sing,"  and  it  is 
quite  likely  that  Isaiah,  Jeremiah  and  the  other  inspired 
poets  uttered  their  thoughts  in  verse  and  song,  both  being 
extemporized. 

The  student  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  various  musical 
instruments  mentioned  in  the  Bible  must  be  understood  as 
types.  The  harp  of  David  was  not  the  same  as  our  harp, 
the  organ  was  not  like  our  great  church  instruments,  viols, 
sackbuts,  cornets,  pipes,  psalteries,  etc.,  are  names  given  by 
the  translators  to  the  Hebrew  terms  used  in  the  Bible.  They 
used  words  with  which  they  were  familiar,  and  which  they 
thought  corresponded  in  type  to  the  instruments  used  by 
the  Hebrews. 

References, 

Rowbotham. — History  of  Music. 

Naumann. — History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 

Engel. — Musical  Instruments. 

Smith. — The  World's  Earliest  Music. 

Anderson. — The  Story  of  Extinct  Civilizations. 

Maspero. — Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria. 

Dickinson. — Music  in  the  History  of  the  Western  Church. 

Questions. 

What  great  river  valley  was  the  home  of  the  Chaldeans? 
What  do  we  know  of  music  among  the  Akkads? 
What  evidence  have  we  to  show  that  the  Assyrians  held 
music  in  high  esteem? 


QUESTIONS,  45 

What  instruments  did  they  use? 

I  low  do  we  learn  of  the  ideas  of  the  Egyptians  in  regard 
to  music? 

Who  controlled  the  knowledge  of  music  and  other  sciences 
and  arts  ?    Was  this  beneficial  to  music  ? 

What  instruments  did  the  Egyptians  use? 

What  was  the  character  of  Egyptian  music? 

What  was  the  origin  of  the  Hebrew  race? 

What  influences  did  they  come  under  in  Egypt? 

What  difference  was  there  between  the  music  of  the 
Hebrews  and  that  of  the  nations  around  them? 

Why  did  they  express  themselves  in  poetry  and  music? 

What  was  a  leading  characteristic  of  their  poetry? 

Have  any  ancient  Hebrew  melodies  been  preserved? 

What  musical  instruments  did  the  Hebrews  have?  What 
was  the  origin  of  these  instruments? 


LESSON  III. 

Music  of  the  Greeks:  Scales. 

When  we  think  of  Greece,  it  is  Athens,  the  centre  of 
Greek  art  and  culture,  that  comes  to  mind.  An  ancient  city, 
Athens,  as  history  teaches  us.  The  record  is  that  it  was 
founded  by  Cecrops,  who  brought  a  colony  from  Egypt,  in 
1556  B.  C.,  a  period  when  Egypt  was  a  centre  of  power, 
wealth,  education  and  science.  Therefore  we  infer  that 
these  colonists  brought  with  them  to  Greece  the  ordinary, 
popular  music  and  instruments  to  which  they  had  become 
accustomed  in  their  home.  But  there  was  an  older  Greece ; 
for  late  discoveries  show  that  there  were  five  cities,  each 
built  upon  the  ruins  of  an  older  city,  the  first  one  going 
back  to  2500  B.  C.  These  earlier  inhabitants,  themselves 
an  offshoot  of  the  great  Aryan  race,  were  absorbed  by  the 
colonists. 

Music  and  Myth  in  Greece. — The  beginnings  of  music  in 
Greece  are  mingled  with  myths :  Pan,  Apollo,  Mercury; 
Athene  and  others  appear  as  the  patrons  and  exemplars  of 
the  musical  art.  Aside  from  the  names  of  the  mythical 
gods  and  goddesses,  there  are  names  of  human  beings  that 
stand  out  with  clearness.  These  early  musicians  were  sing- 
ers or  bards  who  chanted  the  songs  composed  in  honor  of 
chiefs  and  tribal  heroes.  Such  were  Hyagnis,  1506  B.  C., 
Marsyas,  his  son,  and  Olympus  the  elder,  Orpheus,  Musaeus 
(1426  B.  C.),  chief  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  Linus,  Am- 
phion,  Thaletes,  whose  songs  were  favorites  of  Pythagoras; 
the  greatest  of  these  bards  was  the  blind  Homer,  to  whom 
the  date  900  B.  C.  is  assigned.  "By  the  Greeks,  music  as  an 
art  was  considered  an  aid  in  regulating  by  rule  the  inflec- 
tions of  the  voice,  to  mark  the  places  of  emphasis,  and  to 
define  the  pauses  in  the  recitation  of  their  epic  poetry ;  and 
(46) 


GREEK    WRITERS   ON    MUSIC.  47 

the  rhythm  of  their  songs  followed  strictly  laws  that  had 
been  laid  down ;  innovation  was  reprehended,  and  even  pro- 
hibited." 1 

Early  Greek  Musicians  and  Writers. — The  earliest  mu- 
sician's name  met  with  in  the  annals  of  music  is  that  of 
Terpander  (676  B.  C),  who  is  said  to  have  increased  the 
number  of  strings  on  the  lyre  from  four  to  seven.  Next  in 
order  was  Pythagoras  (585-505  B.  C),  who  added  an  eighth 
string  to  the  lyre.  He  was  called  the  discoverer  of  the  Tetra- 
chord,  which  is  still  known  by  this  name,  the  inventor  or 
discoverer  of  the  Octave  Scale,  also  the  discoverer  of  the 
ratios  of  the  consonances ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  he 
learned  all  these  things  during  his  sojourn  in  Egypt.  He  is 
also  credited  with  the  invention  of  the  Canon  or  Monochord 
with  movable  bridges,  a  contrivance  still  in  use  for  in- 
vestigating the  ratios  of  intervals.  Unfortunately  none  of 
the  writings — if  any  ever  existed — of  Pythagoras  have  come 
down  to  us.  Our  knowledge  of  his  theories  is  second-hand, 
gathered  from  the  writings  of  his  disciples.  Pythagoras 
seems  to  have  studied  sound  more  in  the  manner  of  the 
acoustician  than  of  the  musician;  hence  his  followers,  or 
rather  those  who  called  themselves  by  his  name,  were  more 
concerned  with  the  ratios  of  sounds  than  with  their  musical 
effects. 

Among  the  great  philosophers  who  treated  on  music, 
Aristotle  (384  B.  C.)  holds  an  important  place.  We  find 
his  theories  expressed  in  one  of  his  works  called  "Problems." 
A  pupil  of  his — Aristoxenus  (350-320  B.  C),  has  left  the 
most  valuable  treatise  on  music,  of  any  of  the  ancients,  the 
oldest  musical  work  known  at  the  present  time ;  it  is,  unfor- 
tunately, not  complete.  Aristoxenus  was  a  practical,  in  ad- 
dition to  being  a  theoretical  musician ;  he  thought  that 
the  ear  was  the  final  court  of  appeal  in  matters  musical. 
Hence  the  musical  world  was  divided  into  two  factions :  the 
Pythagoreans,  who  held  that  music  was  purely  a  matter 
for  arithmetical  investigation,  and  the  Aristoxenians,  who 

*  Smith. 


48  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

claimed  that  the  chief  end  of  music  was  to  be  Hstcned  to. 
This  dispute  lasted  for  many  centuries.  Boethius,  the 
Roman  philosopher,  in  his  writings  takes  sides  with  the 
Pythagoreans  and  pours  contempt  on  the  mere  musician. 
The  successors  of  the  Pythagoreans  are  even  yet  not  ex- 
tinct, as  every  now  and  again  some  wiseacre  turns  up  with 
a  scheme  to  secure  just  intonation,  at  the  price  of  losing  all 
that  music  has  gained  under  our  present  system.  Plato 
(430  B.  C),  the  greatest  of  philosophers,  has  much  to  say 
about  music ;  but  these  sayings  are  largely  incomprehen- 
sible to  modern  understandings.  Euclid  (323  B.  C),  the 
great  mathematician,  treated  largely  of  music. ^  Aristides 
ftuintiliamis  was  another  author  of  great  weight.  Plutarch, 
in  his  Symposia,  has  one  devoted  to  music,  but  unfortunately 
the  meaning  of  these  authors  is  often  so  obscure  that  it  can- 
not now  be  discovered.  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  came  into 
prominence  in  music  when  the  great  library  was  founded 
there  by  Alexander  the  Great,  in  332  B.  C.  Eratosthenes 
(276-196  B.  C),  the  librarian,  figures  in  the  mathematics 
of  music.  When  we  reach  the  Christian  Era,  we  meet  with 
two  more  writers,  Didymus  (A.  D.  60) ,  who  introduced  the 
"minor"  ^  tone  into  the  scale,  and  Claudius  Ptolemy  (A.  D. 
130). 

The  Music  of  Ancient  Greece  the  Foundation  of  Modern 
European  Music. — Although  the  history  of  European  music 
properly  begins  with  the  music  of  Ancient  Greece,  we  are 
still  very  ignorant  of  the  subject,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
there  is  not  in  existence  a  note  of  music  anterior  to  the 
Christian  Era.  But  lately,  in  the  ancient  treasure  house  at 
Delphi,  a  hymn  was  foimd  inscribed  in  marble  on  the  inner 
wall.  Mr.  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  an  authority  in  matters  pertain- 
ing to  Greek  literature,  says :    "The  time  is  given  by  the 


^This  treatise  is  now  attributed  to  Cleonidas,  writing  about  120 
A.  D. 

*  By  this  is  meant  that  all  intervals  of  the  major  second,  so-called, 
are  not  equally  large  and  cannot  be,  if  a  correct  division  of  fourths 
and  fifths  be  desired.  Didymus  made  the  interval  from  C  to  D 
smaller  than  the  other  seconds  of  the  scale ;  Ptolemy  put  the  "minor" 
tone  between  D  and  E,  where  it  is  now  placed. 


MUSIC   AMONG  THE  GREEKS. 


49 


metre,  a  long  syllable  and  three  short,  variously  placed,  or 
two  long-  and  a  short  between  them,  in  every  case  5-8  in  a 
measure.  ...  As  regards  the  accompaniment  or  har- 
monizing of  the  air,  there  is  none  extant.  [As  to  the  mel- 
ody] although  there  is  rhythm  and  even  a  recurrence  of 
phrases  to  mark  the  close  of  the  period,  nothing  worthy 
of  being  called  melody  in  any  modern  sense  is  to  be  found." 
The  inscription  dates  from  the  third  century  before  Christ, 
is  a  hymn  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses,  and  consists  of  phrases 
equal  to  eighty  measures  in  our  modern  reckoning.  The 
blank  spaces  in  the  measure  were  filled  in  by  an  instrument, 
probably  the   cithara.     Our  knowledge   is   confined   to   the 


Hymn  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses. 


treatises  of  mathematicians  and  musicians,  previously  men- 
tioned, and  these  works  are  often  so  obscure  that  there  is 
much  uncertainty  as  to  their  meaning.  Besides,  these  writ- 
ings are  scattered  over  a  period  of  about  800  years ;  that  is, 
from  585  B.  C,  the  date  of  Pythagoras,  to  130  A.  D.,  the 
date  of  Claudius  Ptolemy.  Numberless  changes  took  place 
in  the  art  in  the  course  of  this  long  period ;  hence  the  attempt 
to  elucidate  a  homogeneous  system  by  comparing  these  writ- 
ings is  about  as  hopeless  as  would  be  the  attempt  to  deduce 
the  modern  system  of  music  from  the  collocation  of  the 
works  of  Guido  and  Hucbald  of  the  loth  century  with 
those  of  Richter  and  Prout  in  the  19th. 

We  owe  much  to  the  labors  of  these  bygone  writers;  in 
fact,  the  Greek  system  of  music  is  the  foundation  upon  which 
the  modern  system  is  the  superstructure.  No  attempt  will 
be  made  here  to  settle  the  many  disputed  points  that  have 
puzzled  the  learned  for  ten  or  mor**  :;enturies,  but  a  clear 


50  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

and  concise  account  of  all  that  is  necessary  to  an  under- 
standing of  the  place  of  tlii?;  system  in  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  music  will  be  given. 

Formation  of  the  Greek  Scale. — The  Greek  Scale  was 
founded  on  a  tetrachord  or  succession  of  four  sounds,  ar- 
ranged as  follows : 

E  (half  tone)  F  (whole  tone)  G  (whole  tone)  A 

It  is  commonly  believed  that  these  letters  written  on  the 
bass  staff,  thus : 


represent  the  exact  pitch,  as  near  as  may  be,  of  this  tetra- 
chord. In  early  times  the  lyre  was  tuned  to  these  four 
sounds,  and  was  called  the  Tetrachordon ;  that  is,  four 
strings.  This  gracefully  shaped  instrument  has  remained 
to  this  day  the  symbol  of  music.  This  limited  scale  was  ex- 
tended by  adding  another  tetrachord,  which  began  with 
the  last  note  of  the  first  tetrachord,  thus: 

A— B-flat  C  D 
E— F  G  A 

making  a  scale  of  seven  sounds,  called  the  scale  of  Conjunct 
or  Joined  Tetrachords;  also  from  its  seven  strings,  the 
Heptachord  scale.  The  next  step  was  to  take  in  the  limit 
of  the  octave.  The  first  way  adopted  was  to  raise  the  high- 
est string  a  whole  tone,  thus  making  it  the  octave  of  the 
lowest;  the  sixth  string  was  also  raised  a  whole  tone  to 
make  it  a  whole  tone  below  the  seventh.  The  result  was  a 
scale  of  seven  sounds  with  one  degree  omitted,  thus: 

A— B-flat  (C)  D  E 
E— F  G  A 

The  next  form  was: 

E— F  G  A  B  (C)  D  E 


THE   GREEK    SCALE.  51 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  scale  the  second  tetrachord  be- 
gins a  whole  tone  above  the  first,  instead  of  beginning  with 
the  final  of  the  first.  It  is  therefore  called  the  scale  of  Dis- 
jiinct  or  Separated  Tetrachords.  The  missing  sound  (C)  is 
here  added  and  the  octave  scale  is  complete.  When  the 
lyre  had  seven  strings,  the  middle  string,  that  is,  the  fourth, 
counting  from  either  end,  was  called  Mcse,  which  means 
"middle" ;  but  this  word  soon  gained  a  secondary  mean- 
ing which,  in  time,  became  the  most  important,  viz. :  Key- 
note. 

The  Lesser  Perfect  System.^ — There  was  in  use  at  the  same 
time  a  scale  called  the  Lesser  Perfect  System,  which  was 
made  from  the  conjunct  seven-note  scale  by  adding  another 
conjunct  tetrachord  below,  thus: 

A— B-flat  C  D 
E— F  G  A 
(A)   B— C  D  E 

Then  A  was  added  below  the  first  tetrachord  to  make  an 
octave  with  the  note  Mese.  This  A  was  the  lowest 
sound  admitted  in  the  Greek  System,  It  was  the  Romans 
who  gave  to  this  series  of  sounds  the  first  seven  letters  of 
the  alphabet,  which  they  still  retain.  This  octave  (A  to  A) 
is  also  the  origin  of  our  natural  minor  scale.  This  Lesser 
System  was  the  scale  used  in  the  Temple  rites.  It  con- 
tinued to  be  used  for  this  purpose  long  after  the  system 
about  to  be  described  was  invented.- 

The  Greater  Perfect  System. — This  was  made  from  the 
disjunct  octave  by  adding  a  conjunct  tetrachord  below 
and  one  above,  thus: 

E— F  G  A 
E— F  G  A  B— C  D  E 
(A)  B— C  D  E 

The  A  below  was  also  added,  thus  making  a  scale  two 
octaves  in  extent.  In  later  times  the  disjunct  tetrachord, 
B — C — D — E,  was  added  at  the  top.  This  E  was  the  high- 
est note  admitted  in  the  Greek  System ;   consequently,  their 


52  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

music  never  exceeded  the  limits  of  two  octaves  and  a  fifth, 
and  the  sounds  included  in  these  systems  were  as  follows : 


'  OnaUr  Perfect  System  wilhoul  b1> 

Q  brt  go 

A*l*4  Wol«|  L««»«r  Perfjct  Syrtem  without  Bl] ~  "  , 

Peculiar  interest  attaches  to  this  series  of  sounds,  be- 
cause in  the  Middle  Ages  they  were  supposed  to  be  the  only 
sounds  admitted  by  the  Greeks.  This  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  B  was  the  first  note  that  it  was  considered  right  to  use 
in  two  forms. 

The  Greek  Scales. — The  Greeks  did  not  by  any  means  con- 
fine themselves  to  these  sounds,  but  changed  the  pitch  of 
the  starting  note  just  as  we  do  with  our  scales ;  in  other 
words,  both  of  these  systems  might  be  transposed.  There- 
fore they  not  only  had  all  the  sounds  at  command  that  we 
have,  but  as  their  scales  were  (theoretically,  at  least)  tuned 
acoustically  true,  they  had  a  great  many  more.  But  their 
scales  were  all  diatonic  (the  scales  they  called  Chromatic 
and  Enharmonic  will  be  explained  later),  they  were  all  like 
our  natural  minor.  When  they  said  "Dorian  Scale"  they 
meant  just  what  we  mean  when  we  say  scale  of  D  minor; 
Phrygian  Scale  meant  E  minor;  Lydian  Scale,  F-sharp 
minor;  Mixo-Lydian,  G  minor.  In  addition  to  these  four 
scales  there  were  three  that  began  a  fourth  below,  one  a 
fourth  below  the  Dorian,  called  the  Hypo-Dorian,  A  minor; 
a  fourth  below  the  Phrygian,  called  the  Hypo-Phrygian,  B 
minor;  and  a  fourth  below  the  Lydian,  called  Hypo-Lydian, 
C-sharp  minor;  these  were  the  standard  scales  of  Greek 
music.  These  names,  Dorian,  etc.,  were  retained  in  the 
Ecclesiastical  System,  but  the  mistake  was  made  of  sup- 
posing that  the  Greeks  used  only  the  fixed  sounds  given  by 
the  untransposed  Greater  System.  Hence  the  Church  Dor- 
ian has  B  natural,  not  B-flat;  the  Church  Phrygian,  F 
natural,  not  F  sharp;  and  the  Church  Lydian  begins  on  F 
natural,  instead  of  on  F  sharp.  Hence,  no  two  church 
scales  are  alike  in  the  positions  of  the  halftones. 


references  and  questions.  53 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Name  some  of  the  myths  connected  with  music  among 
the  Greeks.     Consult  a  work  on  mythology. 

Name  the  musicians  and  philosophers  connected  with 
Greek  music;  arrange  them  in  chronological  order,  with 
dates. 

State  the  successive  points  of  development. 

Why  do  we  consider  that  the  history  of  music  as  we 
know  it  today  begins  with  Greek  music? 

Have  we  music  that  belongs  to  the  Greek  period? 

On  what  was  the  Greek  Scale  founded  ? 

How  was  this  extended?  What  name  did  this  form  re- 
ceive ? 

.    In  what  respect  did  the  Disjunct  form  differ  from  the 
Conjunct? 

What  was  the  Mese? 

What  was  the  Lesser  Perfect  System  ? 

What  was  the  Greater  Perfect  System  ? 

What  was  the  highest  note  used  by  the  Greeks?  Whav 
was  the  lowest? 

Were  these  systems  transposable  ? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  prefix  "Hypo"? 


LESSON  IV. 

Music  of  the  Greeks  (Concluded). 

The  Greek  Octave  System. — So  far,  everything  is  clear 
enough ;  but  the  next  step  is  not  quite  so  sure.  The  Greeks 
spoke  of  the  Dorian  Octave,  the  Phrygian  Octave,  and  so 
on;  and  the  word  Octave,  used  in  this  way,  has  been 
thought  to  be  synonymous  with  Scale,  which  is  doubtful, 
for  the  following  reasons : 

The  standard  instrument  of  the  Greeks  was  the  octave 
lyre.  The  lowest  and  highest  strings  were  tuned  respec- 
tively A,  fifth  line  bass  staff,  and  A,  second  space,  treble. 

These  were  fixed  sounds,  but  the  tuning  of  the  remaining 
six  strings  might  be  changed  at  will;  therefore,  a  series  of 
sounds  belonging  to  any  one  of  these  scales  could  be  made ; 
and  it  will  be  seen,  on  examining  the  following  table,  that  all 
the  seven  scales  may  be  represented  without  changing  the 
extreme  notes,  A  to  A.  Suppose  we  make  the  B  flat.  Now 
B-flat  is  the  characteristic  note  of  the  Dorian  Scale,  in  our 
term,  its  signature.    Therefore  this  octave  would  be  called 


Dorian  OeUva.  Slf^ature  BI 


Phrygian  OeUve.  Signalnro  F| 


HTptt-L/dian  OcUvo.  Si|rna(ar«  F.C.G  AD  sharps: 


(54) 


CHARACTERISTICS    OF   THE    GREEK    SCALES.  55 

the  Dorian  Octave,  not  Dorian  Scale.  We  speak  of  a  scale 
as  beginning  and  ending  on  its  keynote ;  if  it  does  not,  we 
call  it  a  scale  passage  in  such  and  such  a  key. 

The  notes  marked  -{-  are  the  keynotes  (Mese).  It  will 
DC  seen  at  once  that  the  positions  of  the  halftones  differ  in 
each  of  these  octaves.  One  cannot  help  feeling  a  slight  sus- 
picion that  some  confusion  between  scale  and  octave  had  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  the  growth  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Scales. 

One  of  the  latest  of  the  ancient  writers  on  music,  Claudius 
Ptolemy  (about  130  A.  D.),  proposed  that  all  these  octaves 
should  be  transposed  a  fourth  lower;  this  made  the  Dorian 
Octave  E  to  E  (all  naturals).  One  result  of  this  change  is 
that  many  authorities  at  the  present  time  call  this  the  Dorian 
Scale,  whereas  it  is  evident  that  it  is  simply  the  Dorian 
Octave,  as  given  above,  transposed  a  fourth  lower.  Other 
scales  were  added  from  time  to  time,  called  //j'/'^r-Dorian, 
Hyper-Vhryg\2in,  etc.,  a  fourth  above  the  standard  scales ; 
but  it  is  very  uncertain  whether  they  were  in  practical  use ; 
they  were  probably  purely  matters  of  theory. 

Characteristics  Attributed  to  the  Different  Greek  Scales. — 
The  Greeks  attributed  many  fanciful  characteristics  to  the 
various  modes  or  scales,  much  as  some  modern  musicians, 
Berlioz,  for  example,  do  to  the  different  keys.  But  all  seem 
to  have  agreed  as  to  the  Dorian.  This  was  considered  the 
true  Greek  mode,  and  was  called  severe,  firm  and  manly, 
suitable  for  martial  songs.  The  Lydian  mode  was  esteemed 
to  be  effeminate,  suited  to  love  songs,  possibly  because  the 
Lydian  Octave  corresponds  with  the  scale  of  A  major,  and 
a  major  scale  was  not  relished  by  the  Greeks,  any  more  than 
it  was  by  the  early  ecclesiastical  musicians.  A  more  prob- 
able explanation  of  this  attribution  of  different  characters 
to  the  different  scales  is,  that  it  was  customary  to  use  cer- 
tain modes  for  songs  on  certain  subjects,  and  the  character 
of  the  poetry  was  transferred  to  the  music. 

The  Greek  Chromatic  Scale  differed  altogether  from  what 
we  call  a  chromatic  scale.  It  was  made  by  lowering  the 
pitch  of  the  fourth  and  seventh  strings  above  the  keynote  a 
halftone.     Supposing  the  octave  lyre  to  be  tuned  to  the 


56 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


Hypo-Dorian  Mode  or  Scale,  it  would  begin  and  end  on  the 
Keynote  (Mese),  thus: 


Now,  by  lowering  D  and  G  we  get  the  following  scale : 


This  is  the  scale  that  was  called  Chromatic.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  at  one  time  the  most  popular  of  all  the  scales, 
a  statement  we  can  easily  credit,  since  it  contains  in  itself 
the  two  world-wide  five-note  or  Pentatonic  Scales,  com- 
monly known  as  the  Scotch  or  Irish  Scales,  the  most  widely 
distributed  of  all  scales  in  Europe,  Asia  and  America. 


M^or  pentatonic  scale 


Minor  pentatonic  scale 


The  Greek  Enharmonic  Scale. — The  scale  called  Enhar- 
monic was  made  thus :  The  fourth  and  seventh  strings  were 
lowered  a  whole  tone ;  that  is,  to  the  pitch  of  the  second  and 
sixth,  the  second  and  sixth  were  lowered  a  quartertone,  thus  : 


C-flat  is  supposed  to  be  halfway  between  B  and  C ;  F-flat 
halfway  between  E  and  F.  Our  modern  system  does  not 
provide  for  the  notation  of  quartertones. 

Greek  Instmments.  —  The  standard  instrument  of  the 
Greeks  was  the  Ljn'e.  It  bore  many  names,  as  Lyre,  Tetra- 
chordon,  Chelys,  Phorminx,  Cithara,  etc.  There  may  have 
been  slight  differences  in  the  size  and  the  number  of  the 
strings,  but  great  uncertainty  prevails  on  this  point.  Under 
the  name  of  Flute  (Aulos)  they  seem  to  have  included  both 


GREEK    MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 


57 


Lyre. 


CiTHABA 


Lydian  Magadis. 


Flutes  proper  and  instruments  of  the  hautboy  or  clarinet 
family.  These  instruments  bore  a  bewildering  number  of 
names,  the  exact  meaning  of  which  is  lost.  Judging  from 
the  pictorial  representations  that  remain,  the  Greek  instru- 
ments were  inferior  both  in  variety  and  extent  to  those  of 
the  Egyptians.  They  seem  to  have  made  little  use  of  the 
Harp,  of  which  instrument  the  Egyptians  had  a  great  va- 
riety. The  Greeks  seem  to  have  used  instruments  chiefly, 
if  not  solely,  to  accompany  the  voice ;  and  they  appear  never 
to  have  combined  large  numbers  of  instruments  for  any 
purpose.  Even  in  their  tragedies,  which  were  performed  in 
immense  theatres  open  to  the  sky,  the  Chorus  was  limited 
to  fifteen  men,  accompanied  by  two  flutes.  When  accom- 
panying the  voice  with  the  lyre  they  may  have  occasionally 


Double  Flute.     Joined  Flute.        Phoebeia. 


58  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

struck  the  fourth,  fifth  or  octave  of  the  vocal  melody;  but, 
in  general,  they  played  the  voice  part.  Their  most  highly 
developed  instrument  was  a  variety  of  lyre,  the  strings  of 
which  passed  over  a  bridge  placed  one-third  of  the  strings' 
length  from  the  lower  end  of  the  lyre,  thus  causing  the  lower 
part  of  the  string  to  sound  the  octave  of  the  upper  part. 
The  shorter  part  of  the  string  was  played  with  a  plectrum 
in  the  right  hand,  the  longer  part  by  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand.  This  instrument  was  called  Magadis — from 
Magas,  a  bridge.  The  term  Magadize  was  eventually  used 
to  signify  playing  or  singing  in  octaves,  and  was  synonymous 
with  Antiphony. 

Greek  Musical  Notation. — Our  knowledge  of  Greek  mu- 
sical notation  is  very  defective,  being  derived  from  only 
four  or  five  specimens  of  ancient  music,  and  a  few  small 
fragments.  They  appear  to  have  used  a  separate  notation 
for  each  mode,  and  these  four  hymns  are  apparently  all  in 
the  same  mode,  but  authorities  diflfer  as  to  the  mode.  They 
used  the  letters  of  their  alphabet,  both  capital  and  small, 
written  in  various  positions,  sometimes  upright,  sometimes 
lying  on  one  side.  The  notation  for  the  lyre  differed  from 
that  used  for  the  voice.  The  letters  representing  the  vocal 
part  were  written  above  the  words,  those  representing  the  in- 
strumental part,  below  the  words.  These  letters  represented 
the  pitch  of  the  sounds,  but  not  their  duration.  The  dura- 
tion was  regulated  by  the  meter  of  the  poetry.  Instead  of 
a  portion  of  one  of  these  hymns,  the  first  three  lines  of  our 
National  Hymn  are  given  as  a  sample  of  this  notation: 

My  country  'tis  of  thee.  Sweet  land  of  liberty,  Of  thee  I  sing. 
These  letters  have  been  interpreted  as  indicating  the  fol- 
lowing sounds,  the  transposed  Hypo-Lydian  Scale  in  its 
old  form ;  that  is,  the  Lesser  Perfect  System  with  G  sharp 
as  its  keynote.  , 


GREEK    MUSICAL   SCIENCE.  59 

Greek  View  of  Harmony. — The  question  has  been  much 
debated  as  to  whether  or  not  the  Greeks  practiced  har- 
mony. It  seems  hardly  possible  with  such  a  defective  nota- 
tion; but  the  best  argument  against  it  is,  that  there  is  not 
a  word  in  any  of  the  extant  treatises  as  to  combinations  and 
successions  of  these  combinations,  and  it  is  impossible  that 
any  art  of  harmony  should  have  existed  unless  some  rules 
for  its  employment  should  have  been  evolved. 

Greek  Terms  in  Music. — The  modern  terminology  of  music 
is  largely  indebted  to  the  Greek  system,  although  many  of 
the  words  have  entirely  changed  their  significance.  The 
word  Music  itself,  to  the  Greek,  meant  the  whole  circle  of 
the  sciences,  especially  Astronomy  and  Mathematics.  Mel- 
ody meant  the  rising  and  falling  of  the  voice  in  either  speak- 
ing or  singing.  Harmonia  meant  rather  what  wc  call  Mel- 
ody than  our  Harmony.  This  latter,  namely,  the  sounding 
together  of  different  sounds,  was  called  Symphony.  Anti- 
phony  originally  meant  singing  in  octaves,  that  is,  men 
with  women  or  boys.  Chromatic  and  Enharmonic  have  al- 
ready been  explained.  Diapason,  nov/  applied  chiefly  to 
organ  stops,  originally  meant  the  octave;  that  is,  "through 
all."  Diatonic  has  nearly  retained  its  original  meaning. 
Tone,  Semitone  and  Tetrachord  have  retained  their  meaning, 
with  the  exception  that  in  the  modern  tetrachord  the  half- 
tone is  at  the  other  end. 

References. 

Monro. — The  Modes  of  Ancient  Greek  Music. 
Rowbotham. — History  of  Music. 
Oxford  History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

What  was  the  Greek  use  of  the  term  Octave;  "Dorian 
Octave,"  for  example? 

What  change  did  Claudius  Ptolemy  suggest  ?  What  con- 
fusion resulted? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  prefix  "Hyper"  ? 

Explain  the. Greek  Chromatic  Scale. 


60  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Explain  the  Greek  Enharmonic  Scale. 

What  was  the  standard  Greek  musical  instrument  ?  What 
names  were  given  to  modifications  of  it? 

What  instruments  were  comprehended  under  the  term 
Aulas? 

How  were  the  instruments  used  in  accompanying  the 
voice  ? 

What  is  meant  by  "magadizing"  ? 

Give  an  account  of  Greek  musical  notation. 

Did  the  Greeks  use  "Harmony"  as  we  understand  that 
term? 

Name  some  musical  terms  that  come  from  the  Greek. 
Berlioz  gives  the  characters  of  different  keys  in  his  book  on 
Instrumentation.  "Auld  Lang  Syne"  is  a  pentatonic  mel- 
ody, scale  of  F,  with  fourth  and  seventh  .omitted.  Any 
series  of  five  notes  on  the  black  keys  of  the  piano  will  make 
a  pentatonic  scale,  major  character.  The  language  of  music 
was  determined  by  scholars,  hence  the  use  of  so  many  terms 
with  Greek  and  Latin  roots. 


LESSON  V. 

Ecclesiastical  System. 

Rome  the  New  Centre. — The  Power  that  rules  in  the  af- 
fairs of  men  seems  to  have  made  provision  for  the  elevation 
of  the  whole  race  by  diffusing  at  intervals  of  centuries,  the 
treasures  of  art,  science  and  thought  accumulated  by  a  na- 
tion of  unusual  power  and  energy.  Egypt  dominated  the 
northern  part  of  Africa,  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  western  slopes  of  Asia  Minor,  and  in  course  of  time 
yielded  to  the  advance  of  the  Greeks,  but  leaving  behind, 
as  a  legacy,  much  that  has  had  enduring  value.  What  had 
once  been  centred  in  one  nation,  under  the  control  of  one 
caste,  the  priests,  was  spread  through  much  of  the  known 
world.  Greece,  in  turn,  shaped  the  destinies  of  expanding 
civilization.  In  the  Greek  social  life  free  art  played  a  great 
part ;  wherever  the  Greeks  went  as  merchants  and  colonists, 
they  carried  with  them  the  principles  of  Greek  art,  including 
music.  Creek  musicians  were  accounted  stars  of  the  first 
magnitude  in  Egypt,  in  the  Greek  colonies  of  Italy,  and  later 
in  Rome,  which,  aftfv  the  fall  of  Greece  as  a  political  factor, 
became  the  political,  social  and  artistic  centre  of  the  world; 
through  her  conquests  and  subsequent  colonizing  diffusing 
throughout  a  larger  world  than  Egypt  and  Greece  knew,  an 
increased  wealth  of  thought  and  action  which  greatly  in- 
fluenced later  generations. 

Rome  Dependent  Upon  Greece. — The  Romans  did  not  show 
a  native  instinct  for  art.  Their  national  qualities  were  es- 
sentially warlike,  and  were  developed  by  years  of  struggle 
for  existence.  A  people  whose  organized  life  was  political 
and  martial,  and  for  so  long  found  expression  first  in 
defence,  later  in  conquest,  would  not  develop  a  true  art  life. 

(6i) 


62 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 


As  they  grew  stronger  they  built  up  their  collections  by 
pillage  and  by  purchase ;  they  were  tauglit  music,  oratory, 
architecture,  sculpture  by  Greeks  who  sought  the  capital  of 
the  world.     Roman  nobles  imitated  Greek  customs,  learned 


Roman  Horn. 


Sybinx. 


the  Greek  language  and  literature,  cultivated  music  accord- 
ing to  Greek  methods,  used  Greek  instruments,  such  as  the 
cithara,  lyre  and  flute,  sang  Greek  songs  and  formed  com- 
panies of  singers  and  players  to  furnish  entertainment  at 
their  feasts  and  at  the  public  spectacles.  The  Roman  drama 
was  modified  by  Greek  principles,  and  Greek  actors  replaced 
Roman  artists;  the  pantomime  was  borrowed  from  Egypt. 
Music  was  a  favorite  distraction  in  the  high  ranks  of  Roman 
society,  and  men  known  to  history  were  skilful  players  or 
singers — Sylla,  Flaccus,  Calpurnius  Piso,  Titus,  Caligula, 
Hadrian,  and,  best  known  of  all,  Nero. 

Growth  of  Christianity. — While  the  Roman  Empire,  in 
its  turn,  had  served  the  purpose  of  the  Ruling  Power  in  the 
affairs  of  men,  in  secret  a  new  force  was  gaining  strength, 
one  that  was  soon  to  drive  pagan  arts  and  pleasures  from 
open  cultivation.  In  the  Catacombs,  in  remote  sections  of 
the  great  city,  pursued,  hunted  like  beasts,  martyrized,  the 
Christians  clung  to  their  faith  with  its  simple  rites  of  wor- 
ship, in  which  the  singing  of  songs  was  a  marked  feature. 


THE    ECCLESIASTICAL    SYSTEM.  63 

Whence  these  songs  came  is  by  no  means  certain,  the  pre- 
vailing opinion  being  that  they  were  of  Greek  origin,  modi- 
fied by  Hebrew  influence.^     In  the  course  of  years  songs 

Tonus   Peregrinus  aft  a  chant 


were  introduced  in  the  Christian  service  with  no  other  war- 
rant than  that  of  tradition.  During  the  years  of  persecution 
no  systematic  cultivation  of  music  was  possible.  Later, 
when  Constantine  accepted  the  Cross,  325  A.  D.,  and  Chris- 
tianity had  triumphed  over  Paganism,  the  abuses  became 
such  that  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  set  themselves  to 
the  task  of  reform  and  of  establishing  a  system  of  song  for 
the  use  of  the  Church. 

Origin  of  the  Church.  Scales. — It  is  absolutely  unknown 
when  or  by  whom  the  system  of  scales,  known  as  the 
Church  Scales,  was  invented.  The  latest  writer  on  the 
Greek  System  was  Claudius  Ptolemy  (about  130  A.  D.).  In 
330,  Pope  Sylvester  established  a  school  for  training  church 
singers,  but  we  have  no  information  as  to  the  system  he  em- 
ployed. The  name  of  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan  (333-397), 
has  for  centuries  been  associated  with  what  are  called  the 
Authentic  Scales,  but  there  is  no  valid  evidence  whatever 
that  he  had  anything  to  do  with  their  adoption.  The  name 
of  Pope  Gregory  (540-604)  has  also  been  associated  with 
another  set  of  scales  called  Plagal,  with  as  little  authority 
as  in  the  previous  case.  There  does  not  appear  to  have  ex- 
isted any  system  of  notation  in  the  time  of  Ambrose  or 
Gregory.  The  Greek  notation  by  letters  was  forgotten, 
and  the  very  insufficient  system  of  notation  by  Neumes  had 
not  been  invented.  The  only  writer  of  any  authority  after 
Ptolemy  was  Boethius,  and  he  did  more  to  confuse  the  sub- 
ject of  music  than  to  explain  it. 


*  Some  investigators  claim  that  some  of  these  melodies  were  part 
of  the  Temple  service  at  Jerusalem,  making  the  specific  statement 
that  the  melody  used  in  some  liturgical  services,  and  known  as  the 
Tonus  Peregrinus,  is  based  on  a  Temple  chant. 


64     '  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC, 

Foundation  of  the  Church  Scales. — But  if  we  know  noth- 
ing- of  the  inventor  of  the  Cliurch  Scales,  or  of  tlie  way  in 
which  they  grew  into  their  final  form,  we  are,  nevertheless, 
perfectly  well  informed  of  the  fully-developed  system  which, 
it  must  be  remarked,  grew  out  of  a  misunderstanding  of  the 
Greek  Scales.  The  Church  Scales  were  founded  on  the 
Greater  Perfect  System  of  the  Greeks,  with  this  restriction, 
namely,  that  it  was  not  transposable ;  whereas,  we  have 
seen  that  the  various  Greek  modes  zvcre  transpositions  of 
either  the  Lesser  or  Greater  Systems. 


4i?^)-l}« 


This  is  the  series  of  sounds  from  which  the  Church  Scales 
were  made.  None  of  them  might  be  altered  by  sharp  or 
flat,  except  the  B  in  the  second  octave  (and  this  was  a  later 
addition  which  was  probably  owing  to  a  remembrance  of 
the  Lesser  Perfect  System  in  which  the  B  was  flat.)  The 
Greek  names  were  retained  for  the  Church  Scales,  but  as 
not  one  of  the  notes  was  inflected,  it  follows  that  the  half- 
tones occur  in  different  places  in  every  scale.  The  scales  to 
which  these  names  were  given  were  called  Authentic,  those 
with  the  prefix  Hypo  were  called  Plagal.  In  the  table  on 
the  next  page,  the  Greek  and  Church  Scales,  also  the  Greek 
octaves  are  given  side  by  side. 

Confusion  Between  the  Systems. — We  may  gather  from 
this  table  how  the  confusion  between  Dorian  and  Phrygian 
has  arisen.  The  Phrygian  Octave  is  identical  with  the 
Church  Dorian,  and  the  Dorian  Octave  with  the  Church 
Phrygian.  A  proof  that  the  Church  Scales  originated  in 
the  way  indicated  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  Church 
and  Greek  Hypo-Dorian  Scales  are  identical,  this  being  the 
only  Greek  Scale  without  a  sharp  or  flat.  The  Church 
Hypo-Lydian  was  also  called  the  Ionian  Scale ;  its  arrange- 
ment of  tones  and  semitones  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 


THE   CHURCH    MODES. 


65 


modern  major  scale.  It  was  not  considered  appropriate  for 
church  music,  being'  looked  upon  as  soft,  effeminate  and 
lascivious,  by  both  Greeks  and  mediaeval  churchmen. 


Phrygian  Octavo 


GREEK    OCTAVES 
At  the  pitch  as  transposed  by  Plolemv 


Hjrpo-Phrjglan  Octave 


HUo.Ljdiu  Octava 


CHURCH  SCALES  GREEK  SCALES 


'°     Mlio-Lydian 


i-a    Hyp..Phrygi 


Hypo-Phrygia 


Phrygian  Octara 


Hypo-Mlxo-Lydlai 


Eight  Modes  in  Use. — The  Church  Scales  were  numbered 
from  one  to  eight ;  the  Authentic  Scales  were  given  the  oddj 
and  the  Plagal  Scales  the  even  numbers,  thus: 

I.  Dorian  2.  Hypo-Dorian 

related  scales. 

4.  Hypo-Phrygian 
related  scales. 

6.  Hypo-Lydian 
related  scales. 

8.  Hypo-Mixo-Lydian 
related  scales. 


3.  Phrygian 

5.  Lydian 

7.  Mixo-Lydian 


66  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

A  melody  in  an  Authentic  Scale  had  to  end  on  its  Key- 
note, but  a  melody  in  a  Plagal  Scale  ended  on  the  Keynote 
of  its  related  Authentic  Scale.  Observe  that  the  Dorian  and 
Hypo-Mixo-Lydian  Scales  are  identical ;  but  while  the 
former  had  to  end  on  the  Keynote,  D,  the  latter  ended  on 
G,  which  is  the  fourth  of  its  scale,  and  Keynote  of  its 
related  Authentic  Scale. 

Traces  of  these  Authentic  and  Plagal  Scales  may  be  found 
in  many  old  folk-songs.  Thus,  the  melody  of  the  "Last  Rose 
of  Summer"  begins  on  the  Keynote,  rises  in  the  course  of 
the  melody  to  the  octave,  but  ends  by  falling  to  the  Keynote ; 
it  is  therefore  Authentic.  On  the  other  hand,  the  melody 
of  "Robin  Adair"  begins  on  the  fourth  below  the  Keynote, 
rises  to  its  octave,  but  ends  on  the  fourth  above  its  initial 
note  and  is  Plagal;   thus: 

Kang*  R^n^ 


Initial  Final  Initial  Final 

LAST  ROSE  OF  SUMMER  ROBIN  ADAIR, 

The  term  Hyper  (above)  was  sometimes  applied  to  the 
Authentic  Scales.  In  the  Greek  System  the  Hyper  Scales 
were  the  same  distance  above  the  standard  scales  that  the 
Hypo  Scales  were  below.  Although  twelve  modes  were 
theoretically  admitted  in  church  music,  it  was  for  the  most 
part  confined  to  the  eight  modes  given  above. 

The  Dominant. — In  addition  to  the  keynote  there  was  an- 
other note  in  every  scale  of  almost  equal  importance,  called 
the  Dominant.  This  name  has  been  retained  in  the  modern 
system,  but  with  a  total  change  of  meaning.  In  the  Church 
Scales  it  meant  the  Reciting  Note,  that  is,  the  note  on  which 
the  principal  part  of  the  words  was  chanted.  In  all  the 
Authentic  Scales  but  the  Phrygian,  the  fifth  of  the  scale  is 
the  Dominant;  in  the  Phrygian  the  sixth  is  the  Dominant,  be- 
cause the  B  was  a  changeable  note,  that  is,  might  be  natural 
or  flat.  The  Dominants  of  the  Plagal  Scales  are  a  third  be- 
low the  Dominants  of  the  related  Authentic  Scales,  except  in 


hucbald's  and  guido's  scales.  67 

the  Hypo-Mixo-Lydian,  in  which  the  Dominant  is  a  second 
below  that  of  its  related  Authentic  Scale.  Therefore  the 
Dominant  is  the  sixth  of  all  the  Hypo  Scales,  but  the  Hypo- 
Phrygian  and  Hypo-Mixo-Lydian,  in  which  it  is  the  sei'enth. 
■Hucbald's  Scale. — Two  attempts  were  made  in  the  loth 
century  to  construct  new  scales,  first  by  Hucbald,  who 
founded  his  series  of  sounds  on  a  tetrachord,  in  which  the 
halftone  was  between  the  second  and  third,  thus :  A  B  C  D. 
His  object  seems  to  have  been  to  obtain  a  series  in  which  a 
succession  of  perfect  fourths  and  fifths  might  be  secured, 
for  which  purpose  he  made  use  of  the  following  series  of 
sounds : 


In  the  first  tetrachord  B  was  flat,  in  the  third  natural ;  in 
the  fourth,  F  was  sharp.  As  to  the  use  made  of  this  scale, 
little  or  nothing  is  known. 

Guido's  Scale. — The  other  attempt,  usually  attributed  to 
Guido,  a  contemporary  of  Hucbald,  resulted  in  the  Hexa- 
chord  Scale  (six-note  scale).  This  scale  was  formed  by  add- 
ing a  whole  tone  above  and  below  the  Hucbald  tetrachord, 
thus :  G,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E.  To  complete  the  series  of  Hexa- 
chord  Scales,  another  sound  was  added,  namely :  the  G  below 
the  A  on  which  the  Greek  scales  and  their  derivatives,  the 
Church  scales,  began.  The  first  seven  letters  of  the  Roman 
alphabet  were  used  to  name  the  sounds  already  in  use,  hence 
to  indicate  this  sound  the  Greek  letter.  Gamma,  was  adopted. 
At  the  same  time  the  syllables  ut — re — mi — fa — sol — la 
were  used  to  name  the  sounds  of  every  hexachord  (precisely 
as  the  movable  Do  is  used  now)  ;  hence  this  lowest  sound 
was  called  Gamma-ut,  corrupted  into  Gamut.  The  sounds  in 
the  series  were  indicated  by  placing  after  the  letter  the  syl- 
lables that  indicated  its  position  in  all  the  hexachords  in 
which  it  was  found,  thus : 

G  A  B— C  D  E 

C  D  E— F  G  A 


68 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


I.  Gamma — nt.  2.  A — re.  3.  B — ;;;/.  4.  C — Pa — ut, 
because  C  is  fa  in  the  first,  and  ut  in  the  second  licxacliord. 
Consequently,  to  a  mediaeval  musician,  C — fa—iit  meant 
what  we  would  call  C,  second  space  bass  clef. 

The  following  table  gives  all  the  Hexachord  Scales  with 
the  names  of  the  sounds.  It  is  of  interest  because  this  sys- 
tem of  nomenclature  persisted  long  after  the  one  which 
gave  rise  to  it  was  obsolete. 


CO 

> 
a) 


fE 
D 
C 

?^ 
B> 

lA 

G 

F 

E 

D 

C 

bP 

A 
G 
F 
E 


ol^ 


O 


B 
A 


la 

sol 
fa 

mi 
re 
ut 


la 
sol 
fa 
mi 
re 
ut 


la 
sol 

fa 
mi 
re 
ut 


la 

sol 
fa 
mi 

re 
ut 


la 
sol 
fa 
mi 
re 
ut 


la 

sol 

fa 
mi 
re 
ut 


la 

sol 
fa 
mi 

re 
ut 


The  Hexachords  in  which  the  B  was  flat  were  called  Soft 
(Mollis);  those  in  which  B  was  natural,  Hard  (Dura) ;  the 
term  mollis  has  been  retained  in  the  French  word  Bemol, 
a  flat,  and  in  the  German  name  for  a  minor  key,  Moll.  The 
word  dura  (hard)  is  also  retained  in  the  German  as  a  name 
for  the  major  key  Dur.     When  the  letters  were  used  as  a 


THE    HEXACHORD    SCALES.  69 

means  of  notation,  the  sound  B-flat  was  indicated  by  the 
old  form  of  the  letter  b,  which  has  been  retained  as  the 
sign  for  a  flat.  This  was  called  B  rotundiim  (round  B)  ; 
when  B  natural  was  wanted,  a  stroke  was  put  on  the  right 
side  of  the  [),  called  B  quadratnm  (squared  B),  the  sign  to 
this  day  for  a  natural. 

Reference. 
Oxford  History  of  Alusic,  Vol.  I. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

What  city  became  the  centre  of  life  after  Athens  and 
Greece  fell? 

What  new  influence  was  shaping  in  the  Roman  Empire? 

When  did  music  receive  official  attention  and  reform? 

What  names  are  associated  with  the  early  history  of 
Church  Music? 

On  which  Greek  system  were  the  Church  Scales  founded  ? 

What  difference  exists  between  the  Greek  and  the  Church 
Scales  as  to  the  positions  of  the  halftones? 

What  is  meant  by  Authentic  and  Plagal? 

What  were  the  rules  in  regard  to  a  melody  in  the  Au- 
thentic forms?     What  Plagal?     Give  an  example  of  each. 

What  is  meant  by  Dominant?  Was  the  position  of  the 
Dominant  the  same  in  each  scale?     Name  some  variations. 

What  attempts  were  made  to  construct  new  scales? 

What  is  meant  by  ''Gamut"? 

What  is  meant  by  C — fa — ut? 

What  names  were  given  to  the  dififerent  forms  of  the 
Hexachord  ?    What  are  the  modern  meanings  of  the  terms  ? 

What  is  the  origin  of  the  flat  and  natural  signs? 

Note  the  points  of  similarity  and  difference  in  the  three 
scale  forms  on  page  65  in  this  lesson.  As  an  exercise  take 
well-known  airs  to  see  if  they  are  Authentic  or  Plagal.  In 
the  "Taming  of  the  Shrew,"  by  Shakespeare,  is  a  passage 
in  which  reference  is  made  to  the  names  of  the  notes  as 
found  in  this  lesson.    Read  this  passage  in  class. 


LESSON  VI, 

NOTATIUX, 

System  of  Notation  by  Letters. — The  earliest  system  of 
Notation,  attributed  to  Boethius,  the  Roman  philosopher, 
seems  to  have  been  the  placing-  of  letters  over  the  syllables, 
thus : 

C      C     D     B    C      D 
My  country  'tis  of  thee. 

Boethius'  Notation 


j^^^^^^^^^^j^^^gj^g^^^^ 


M      N      O 


During  the  period  of  history  dominated  by  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great,  a  change  was  made  in  this  system  by  which 
capital  letters,  small  letters  and  double  letters  were  used,  an 
improvement,  since  only  the  first  seven  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet were  employed,  thus : 


This  system  seems  to  have  been  used  chiefly  for  theoretic 
demonstration.  These  two  methods  indicated  the  pitch  suf- 
ficiently, but  not  the  duration  of  the  sounds. 

Neumes. — The  next  attempt  was  somewhat  of  a  retro- 
gression instead  of  an  improvement.  Signs  called  Neumes 
were  placed  over  the  words.  These  signs  consisted  of  points, 
lines,  accents,  hooks,  curves,  angles  and  a  number  of  other 
characters  placed  more  or  less  exactly  over  the  syllables 
to  which  they  were  intended  to  be  sung,  in  such  manner  as 
to  show,  relatively,  by  the  distance  above  the  text,  how 
much  the  voice  was  to  rise  or  fall.  They  did  not  indicate 
(70) 


NEUMES. 


71 


absolute  pitch  or  duration.  The  number  of  characters  in 
use,  according  to  manuscripts  still  preserved,  varied  from 
seven  to  forty.     In  later  forms  they  appear  in  the  notation 


Lcltrci. 
fli         f      giJ        nr  cfgfd  il    g  g     lig      hi    li       kk       hg       cf 

Notation  du  Irci/icme  sieclc. 


\^y°l'^''^ff'rrfnT^^n'rr\"'     ^\'-r 


neumes. 

I^ttres. 
gfg  cf  hi     g     g        fd       f     de      dc    c  d       gh        efg         f  d      c      dd. 

Notation  du  Ireizicmc  s'lhclc 


used  for  ^e  old  Plain  Song  melodies   (Gregorian)    which 
were  recalled  into  general  use  by  Pope  Pius  X,  in  1904. 

Parallel  Lines. — Another  plan  was  to  use  a  variable  num- 
ber of  lines,  writing  the  syllables  in  the  spaces,  thus : 


■J2  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

This  clumsy  contrivance  indicated  relative  pitch  well 
enough,  but  not  the  A-t^v — or  the  duration.  The  next  step 
was  to  use  hues — which  varied  in  number — upon  or  between 
which  the  Neumes,  which  gradually  changed  to  square  notes, 
were  written.  The  pitch  was  indicated  by  using  a  red  line 
for  F,  and  a  yellow  or  green  line  for  C.  A  further  im- 
provement was,  to  put  the  letters  F  or  C  and  later  G  on 
one  of  the  lines  at  the  beginning;  the  modern  clefs  are 
simply  modifications  of  these  letters. 

Characters  to  Indicate  Duration. — The  honor  of  suggest- 
ing characters  to  indicate  duration  is  usually  attributed  to 
Franco  of  Cologne,  an  ecclesiastic  who  lived  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  I2th  century;  but  as  in  the  case  of  Gregory  and 
Guido,  we  must  beUeve  that  his  name  simply  stands  as 
representative  of  a  period.  A  system  is  rarely  the  work  of 
one  man,  rather  a  development  from  the  labor  of  many. 
Franco's  treatise  on  the  subject  marked  an  epoch.  Up  to 
the  end  of  the  13th  century  the  notes  in  use  were  the  Longa, 
Brevis,  and  Semibrevis,  as  well  as  the  Duplex  Longa,  or 
Maxima.  The  smaller  values,  the  Minima,  and  the  Semi- 
minima  first  occur  about  1300.     About  the  middle  of  the 

Long*    Brevis    Semibrevis    Duplex  Lonfca  or  Hazlma    Minima    Semiminlma 

15th  century  white  notes  were  introduced  in  place  of  cer- 
tain of  the  black,  the  latter  color  being  reserved  only  for  the 
smaller  note  values.  The  signs  underwent  some  change  at 
this  time.  Maxima,  Longa,  Brevis,  Semibrevis  (our  whole 
note).  Minima  (half  note),  Semiminima  (quarter),  Fusa 
(eighth),  Semi  fusa  (sixteenth). 

Mkxima  Longa  Brevis  Semibrevis    Minima    Semiminima      Fusa    Seipifusa 

p=5    ti^    H      o        i  i         ^       ^ 

The  Beginnings  of  Harmony. — Our  information  as  to  the 
beginning  of  Harmony  is  very  vague  and  uncertain.  As 
early  as  the  Saxon  times  in  England  some  rude  kind  of  part 
singing,  without  written  rules  apparently,  seems  to  have 


THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    HARMONY. 


71 


existed.  The  first  intimations  we  have  of  any  scientific  at- 
tempts are  Fabi^rden  or  Falsohordone  and  £>i9i)houy  or  Or- 
ganum.  Faburcfeq  consisted  of  singing  a  ijielody  while  an- 
other voice  sang  a  drone  accompaniment  below  it;    thus: 


Diaphony^  or    Organum    consisted    of    a    succession    of 
fourths  or  fifths  and  octaves,  thus : 

Two  Parts  Three  Parts 


It  has  been  denied  by  some  authorities  that  such  a  bar- 
barous manner  of  singing  ever  existed ;  but  two  considera- 
tions have  been  lost  sight  of,  in  making  this  denial :  First, 
the  fourth,  fifth  and  octave  were  esteemed  the  only  conso- 
nances. Secondly,  the  undisputed  fact  that  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Chaucer,  if  not  later,  what  was  called  "discanting 
quatible"  or  "quinable"  existed ;  this  discanting  was  done  as 
follows :  The  performer  while  singing  a  melody  accom- 
panied himself  on  the  lute,  playing  the  same  melody  a  fourth 
or  fifth  above.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  a  style  of  per- 
formance that  was  esteemed  in  the  15th,  was  perfectly  satis- 
factory to  the  ears  of  the  loth  century. 

Discaiit. — Another  early  attempt  at  harmonic  effect  was 
the  singing  of  an  extemporaneous  part  or  parts  with  the  mel- 
ody, called  Discanting.  In  course  of  time  the  Discant  or 
Organum  gradually  crystallized  into  rules,  and  other  in- 
tervals were  accepted.  Strangely  enough,  dissonances  seem 
to  have  been  admitted  with  great  freedom,  and  thirds  and 
especially  sixths,  were  avoided.  The  only  dissonance  that 
was  not  allowed  was  the  minor  second. 

The  New  Organum. — In  the  nth  century,  a  method  of 
combining  sounds,  called  the  New  Organum,  was  devel- 
oped. This  kind  of  Organum  admitted  thirds  and  sixths. 
The  following  example  will  sufficiently  illustrate  this : 


74  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Measured  Music. — The  next  step  in  advance,  and  one  that 
proved  very  important  and  far-reaching  in  its  results  on  the 
development  of  music,  was  the  invention  of  a  notation  that 
indicated,  although  not  very  conveniently,  the  relative  dura- 
tion of  sounds.  Thus  it  became  possible  to  express  two  or 
more  parts  in  a  permanent  form.  The  plan  of  this  first  at- 
tempt at  a  notation  by  means  of  which  relative  duration 
of  notes  might  be  expressed  was  very  complicated.  Music 
written  with  these  signs  was  called  Measured  Music  (Can- 
tus  MensiirahUis). 

The  Record  of  Early  Harmony. — There  are  references  to 
the  manner  of  using  voices  in  combination  in  the  writings 
of  several  men  associated  with  the  Christian  Church  in  its 
early  days.  Censorinus,  who  lived  in  the  3d  century,  makes 
mention  of  a  practice  of  using  a  melody  in  octaves  accom- 
panied by  the  fifth  to  the  lower  note  of  the  octave,  which 
is  also  the  fourth  to  the  upper.  Cassiodorus,  in  the  6th 
century,  mentions  various  ways  of  accompanying  the  chant 
with  consecutive  fourths  and  fifths.  In  a  work  called  "Sen- 
tences About  Music,"  written  by  Bishop  Isidore  of  Seville, 
who  lived  in  the  7th  century,  we  read  that  "harmony  is  a 
modulation  of  the  voice,  the  concordance  of  many  sounds 
and  their  agreement."  In  the  9th  century  we  meet  with  the 
names  of  several  writers :  Remi  d'Auxerre  who  defines  har- 
mony as  "a  consonance  of  voices,  and  their  union  in  One 
group";  Jean  Scot  Erigene  who  recognized  that  the  suc- 
cession of  chords  composed  of  octaves,  fifths  and  fourths  is 
a  rational  one;  Odo  or  Otger,  a  churchman  of  the  south  of 
France,  whose  work  was  the  first  to  mark  an  epoch  in  the 
development  of  the  art  of  music.  Also  another  monk,  the 
Fleming  Hucbald,  who  lived  in  the  loth  century.  They 
defined  consonance  and  dissonance,  and  appear  to  have  been 
the  first  to  give  rules  for  the  construction  of  Diaphony. 
Hucbald  says  in  his  "Musica  Enchiriadis" :  "Certain  dis- 
similar sounds  sung  together  make  an  agreeable  effect,  and 
this  mingling  of  voices  is  sweet  to  the  ear." 

Their  immediate  successor,  Guido,  has  been  credited,  un- 
justly, with  being  the  inventor  of  nearly  every  improvement 


EARLY    WRITERS    ON    HARMONY.  75 

in  the  art  up  to  his  time.  The  old  organtini  closed  with 
his.  The  earliest  writer  who  treats  of  the  new  organum  is 
John  Cotton,  in  the  nth  century.  He  was  the  first  to  pro- 
mulgate the  rule  that  contrary  motion  is  always  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  similar  or  oblique.  He  says :  "At  least  two  singers 
are  required  in  diaphony  formed  from  different  sounds. 
While  one  voice  sings  a  melody,  the  other  surrounds  it  with 
different  tones,  and  at  the  end  of  the  phrases  the  two  voices 
unite  at  the  unison  or  octave."  The  fullest  development  of 
the  new  organum  was  attained  in  the  works  of  Guy  de  Chalis, 
about  the  close  of  the  12th  century.  He  gives  examples  in 
which  we  find  intervals  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth,  a  demon- 
stration of  the  existence  of  a  system  differing  from  the 
Gregorian,  which  does  nqt  exceed  the  octave.  In  the  same 
epoch,  Denis  Lewts,  of  Liege,  a  Carthusian  monk,  gives  rules 
to  fix  the  use  of  accidental  signs,  a  flat  to  lower  B,  a  sharp 
to  raise  F.  He  speaks  of  these  as  if  they  had  been  in  use 
for  a  long  time,  and  indicated  that  the  idea  was  to  avoid  the 
occurrence  of  the  diminished  fifth  or  the  augmented  fourth, 
known  in  harmony  as  the  tritone.  This  process  is  called 
Musica  Ficta,  and  formed  a  part  of  the  instruction  of  sing- 
ers. The  examples  cited  by  Lewts  conform  to  this  theory, 
and  show  that  although  in  the  songs,  motets  and  other  com- 
positions of  the  period  the  sharps  and  flats  are  not  found,  it 
is  because  musicians  knew  the  principles  and  made  the  ap- 
plication for  themselves.  Instruction  in  those  days  was 
chiefly  oral,  a  method  which  placed  a  premium  on  a  reten- 
tive memory.  By  the  time  that  the  13th  century  was  reached, 
musical  forms  and  melodies  were  widely  spread,  and  as  we 
look  back  to  the  9th  century  it  is  possible  to  note  the  gradual 
development.  Harmony  always  existed,  in  a  limited  sense ; 
but  it  did  not  take  on  a  scientific  development  until  the 
Middle  Ages.  It  is  to  the  musicians  of  this  latter  period, 
from  the  13th  to  the  15th  centuries,  that  we  must  give  the 
honor  of  having  taken  the  germ  of  a  science  of  harmony 
and  of  having  brought  it  forward  to  mature  development. 


y^  the  history  of  music. 

Rkfekknce. 
Williams. — The  Story  of  Notation. 

Questions. 

Explain  the  earliest  system  of  notation  used  for  the 
Church  scales.    What  was  the  next  improvement? 

State  the  defects. 

What  was  the  system  of  Notation  by  Neumes  ?  Did  they 
indicate  absolute  or  relative  pitch  ? 

Give  the  successive  steps  making  use  of  lines. 

What  was  the  origin  of  our  Clef  signs  ? 

Who  is  credited  with  introducing  signs  to  indicate  Dura- 
tion? 

Name  the  signs  adopted.  Compare  them  to  the  notes  now 
in  use. 

Explain  Faburden ;  Diaphony ;  Organum ;  Discant ; 
Measured  Music. 

Who  were  the  early  writers  on  the  subject  of  music?    ■ 


LESSON  VII. 

Music  Outside  the  Church. 

Up  to  this,  our  study  of  music  in  the  Christian  Era  has 
traced  the  development  of  the  art  as  fostered  by  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  and  mainly  among  the  people  of  Southern 
Europe,  in  whom  there  was  a  strong  admixture  of  the  Latin 
blood  and  spirit.  Before  going  farther  on  this  line  we  will 
look  into  the  record  of  music  among  the  races  of  Northern 
Europe. 

Music  of  the  Gauls. — Roman  writers  give  us  some  ac- 
count of  the  character  of  the  music  of  the  Gauls,  which  dif- 
fered much  from  the  Greco-Latin  songs.  Roman  historians 
make  mention  of  the  songs  of  the  Gallic  bards,  who  were 
poets  and  musicians  as  well,  composing  both  religious  hymns 
and  songs  in  honor  of  their  heroes.  According  to  Diodorus 
of  Sicily,  the  Gauls  practiced  the  musical  art  long  before 
the  Christian  Era,  having  regular  schools  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  younger  bards.  The  instrument  used  in  accom- 
panying their  songs  was  a  sort  of  lyre,  judging  from  rep- 
resentations on  some  gold  medals  made  in  the  time  of  Julius 
Caesar.  Charlemagne  ordered  a  collection  of  the  early 
Gallic  songs  to  be  made,  but  the  work  has  not  survived. 

The  Celtic  Bards. — The  Breton  bards  made  use  of  an  in- 
strument the  name  of  which  is  variously  spelled  Crouth, 
Crowd,  Chrotta,  Crwth,  played  with  a  bow,  with  an  open- 
ing in  the  upper  part  through  which  the  performer  placed 
the  left  hand  in  order  to  press  the  strings,  the  number  of 
which  varied  from  three  to  six.  The  crouth  of  the  Welsh 
bards  differed  in  some  respects  from  those  that  were  made 
use  of  by  the  Breton  bards.  With  them,  however,  a  form 
of  the  harp  became  the  national  instrument.  The  early 
history  of  Celtic  music  in  Wales  in  particular,  is  mingled 

{77) 


78 


TflE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 


with  myth.  We  have  only  the  names  of  bards,  Fingal, 
Fergus  and  Ossian,  no  authentic  music.  What  is  of  im- 
portance to  us  is  the  secular  organization  of  the  bards.  One 
class  included  poets,  historians  and  those  skilled  in  the 
science  of  heraldry ;  another  class  comprehended  musical 
bards,  harp  players  bearing  the  title  of  doctors  of  music, 
players  of  the  six  stringed  crouth  and  singers,  who  must 
have  been  skilled  men,  since  nine  years'  study  was  exacted 
of  them. 


Breton  Cbouth. 


Lybe  (9th  Cent.) 


Irish  Hasp. 


English  Harp. 


MUSIC    IN    IRELAND    AND   SCOTLAND.  79 

Ireland.  —  The  traditionary  bard  of  Ireland  is  Fergus, 
whose  songs  were  of  war  and  heroes.  When  St.  Patrick 
introduced  Christianity  into  Ireland  in  the  5th  century, 
learning  and  skill  in  the  arts  of  poetry  and  music  grew  to 
be  cultivated  as  extensively  as  in  more  favored  lands.  In 
the  loth  century,  the  famous  musician  was  the  King  O'Brien 
Boru,  whose  harp  is  still  shown  in  the  Dublin  Museum. 
This  has  twenty-eight  strings,  and  the  sounding  board,  in 
which  there  are  four  holes,  is  very  large  at  the  base.  After 
Ireland  was  conquered  by  the  English  its  culture  declined, 
owing  to  continuous  wars  and  internal  strife. 

Scotland. — The  music  of  the  Scotch,  like  the  other  Celtic 
races  just  mentioned,  is  characteristic.  Their  harp  was 
similar  in  form  to  the  Irish ;  their  favorite  instrument  was 
the  bagpipe.  King  James  I  is  credited  with  having  done 
much  to  stimulate  an  interest  in  music  among  his  subjects. 
Having  been  a  captive  in  England  for  a  period  of  eighteen 
years,  he  had  acquired  great  skill  in  music,  which  was  the 
solace  of  his  weary  hours.  According  to  a  contemporary 
historian,  the  king  played  a  great  many  of  the  instruments 
in  use  in  his  day:  the  bagpipe,  psaltery,  organ,  harp,  lute, 
flute  and  dulcimer.  The  music  of  Scotland  makes  great 
use  of  the  pentatonic  scales,  and  it  is  likely  that  the  original 
form  of  many  of  the  old  Scottish  folk-melodies  was  penta- 
tonic. A  characteristic  feature  of  Scottish  music  is  the  so- 
called  "Scotch  snap,"  illustrated  in  the  short  notes  in  the 
familiar  air  "Comin'  Thro'  the  Rye,"  and  in  the  following 
dance  tune : 

STRATHSPEY 


An  instrument  of  so  marked  characteristics  as  those  dis- 
played by  the  bagpipe  will  naturally  develop  a  characteristic 
style  of  music.  The  pipers  gave  extraordinary  study  to  the 
mastery  of  their  instrument  and  noted  players  acquired  won- 
derful skill.i 


^  A  fine  account  of  their  methods  is  found  in  Robert  Louis  Steven- 
son's novel  "Kidnapped." 


8o  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

England. — Until  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  England  by 
William  of  Normandy  ( 1066) ,  music  among-  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  was  practiced  by  the  scalds  or  bards,  minstrels  (also 
called  gleemen),  and  the  monks  in  the  monasteries.  Poetry 
and  music  were  much  encouraged  by  some  of  the  kings  and 
Alfred  the  Great  (849-901)  was  widely  famed  for  his  skill 
in  playing  the  harp  and  as  a  singer.  In  the  manuscripts 
belonging  to  these  early  days  in  England  we  read  of  such 
instruments  as  the  psaltery,  the  rota,  little  harps  of  eleven 
strings,  viols,  called  fiddles,  citharas,  cornets,  trumpets,  etc. 

Scandinavia.  —  The  Runic  style  of  writing, — which  has 
numerous  analogies  to  the  neumes, — used  by  the  northern 
people,  presents  many  difficulties  in  the  matter  of  transla- 
tion, so  that  we  have  little  chance  to  form  an  opinion  as  to 
the  early  music  of  the  Scandinavian  races.  They  have  their 
national  poems,  a  presentation  of  their  myths  in  the  Edda, 
and  the  deeds  of  their  great  heroes  in  the  Sagas,  songs 
which  inspired  both  poets  and  musicians,  an  office  most 
generally  found  united  in  one  person,  called  a  scald,  (equiva- 
lent to  the  Saxon  bard).  The  sagas  were  sung  or  chanted 
by  the  scalds  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  small  harp.  In 
1639  and  again  in  1734,  in  the  duchy  of  Schleswig,  horns 
of  pure  gold  were  found  which  had  been  used  in  the  worship 


Scandinavian  Lttdb. 

of  Odin,  covered  with  Runic  inscriptions,  which  have  not 
yet  been  satisfactorily  deciphered.  Other  instruments  be- 
longing to  this  period  that  have  been  discovered  and  pre- 
served in  museums  are  bronze  horns  somewhat  curious  in 


MUSIC    IN    SOUTHERN    EUROPE.  8l 

shape,  called  liidr.  These  instruments  have  been  tested  by 
experienced  horn  players  and  give  forth  a  fine,  resonant 
tone.  Up  to  the  present  nothing  has  been  discovered  to 
indicate  that  the  northern  races  had  a  system  of  musical 
notation ;  melodies  were  undoubtedly  transmitted  by  oral 
communication. 

Finland. — The  people  of  Finland  are  intensely  musical 
and  have  many  beautiful  folk-songs.  Their  national  epic 
is  called  the  "Kalevala,"  and  gives  the  history  of  the  hero, 
Wainoemonien,  god  of  music,  who  by  the  exercise  of  his 
art,  became  the  master  of  the  universe,  analogous  to  the 
Greek  myth  of  Orpheus.  The  Finnish  bards  used  an  in- 
strument called  Kantele  or  Harpu,  a  sort  of  psaltery  with 
five  strings  forming  the  first  five  notes  of  the  minor  scale, 
G  fourth  space,  bass  stafif,  to  D  above. 

Progress  in  Southern  Europe. — As  may  be  gathered  from 
the  hasty  survey  of  music  among  the  nations  in  the  west 
and  north  of  Europe,  they  did  not  contribute  to  its  growth 
during  the  centuries  under  consideration.  It  was  in  the 
south  of  Europe  that  the  forces  were  forming,  and  not  in  the 
Church  as  heretofore,  but  outside,  among  the  people.  We 
cannot  say  who  composed  the  songs  of  the  people,  so  dif- 
ferent in  character  from  the  songs  of  the  Church ;  they 
seemed  to  spring  up  spontaneously  and  were  passed  from 
one  to  another  orally.  The  music  of  the  Church  lacked 
measure  or  rhythm,  as  we  may  say,  while  the  music  of  the 
people,  closely  associated  with  dancing,  was  rhythmic.  In 
fact,  the  scholarly  musicians  of  that  period  condemned  the 
music  of  the  people  because  of  its  marked  rhythmic  char- 
acter. On  account  of  the  crudeness  of  the  early  instru- 
ments, often  the  lack  of  them  and  of  competent  players,  the 
people  were  accustomed  to  sing  to  their  dancing,  a  custom 
still  followed  in  certain  places.  The  next  step  was  an  easy 
one,  that  of  making  new  verses  to  familiar  airs.  Another 
factor  in  spreading  music  among  the  people  appears  in  the 
traveling  minstrels.  Without  a  fixed  residence,  owing  al- 
legiance to  no  lord,  by  law,  in  many  cases,  out  of  the  pale 
of  society,  these  free  sons  of  art,  who  began  to  come  into 


82  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

prominence  in  the  nth  century,  roved  from  place  to  place, 
resting  for  the  night  in  castle,  monastery,  inn  or  wayside 
camp.  In  return  for  the  hospitality  freely  given,  they  sang 
the  songs  they  learned  from  each  other  and  in  the  various 
lands  they  visited.  Their  accomplishments  in  the  music 
line  were  varied.  One,  Robert  le  Mains,  said:  "I  can  play 
the  lute,  the  violin,  the  pipe,  the  bagpipe,  the  syrinx,  the 
harp,  the  gigue,  the  gittern,  the  symphony,  the  psaltery,  the 
organistrum,  the  regals,  the  tabor  and  the  rote.  I  can  sing 
a  song  well  and  make  tales  and  fables," 

Trouveres. — Another  influence  was  also  at  work,  one  that 
was  greatly  to  affect  music,  raising  it  from  the  level  of  com- 
mon entertainment  to  an  art  patronized  by  the  highest  so- 
cial circles.  The  Crusades  left  a  permanent  influence  upon 
the  people  of  Europe  and  upon  the  institution  of  Chivalry, 
the  knightly  singers  (trouveres)  vying  with  each  other  in 
verse  and  song,  as  well  as  in  arms.  Education  took  a  higher 
place  and  schools  became  more  numerous  (12th  and  13th 
centuries),  and  music  was  given  recognition;  this  was  the 
case  not  only  in  schools  connected  with  monasteries,  but  also 
in  the  newly  established  universities,  such  as  that  at  Paris. 
Secular  music  also  had  schools,  so  to  speak,  for,  during 
Lent,  when  all  gay  songs  were  forbidden,  the  trouveres  and 
minstrels  would  stop  at  some  convenient  point  and  teach 
their  songs  to  all  who  would  learn;  hither  the  great  lords 
would  send  the  minstrels  in  their  pay  to  renew  their  reper- 
toires and  learn  the  songs  that  were  most  favored  by  the 
polite  world.  It  was  not  possible  that  much  advance  could 
be  made  in  musical  education,  from  a  scientific  side,  for 
there  was  no  general  system  of  convenient  notation.  Airs 
were  taught  by  playing  them  over,  the  singer  with  the  ready 
ear  having  the  advantage.  Still  the  efforts  and  studies  made 
in  the  monasteries  and  schools  were  not  fruitless,  although 
the  systems  evolved  were  very  complicated,  making  the 
reading  of  music  a  difficult  matter. 

The  Music  of  the  Period. — It  is  a  fortunate  thing  for  the 
investigator  of  the  history  of  music  that,  at  the  present  time, 
a  number  of  collections  of  the  airs  of  the  12th  and  13th 


THE   TROUBADOURS.  83 

centuries  are  still  in  existence ;  for  example,  in  the  National 
Library,  Paris,  which  possesses  a  number  of  magnificent 
manuscripts,  containing  songs  noted  down  by  the  French 
trouveres ;  also  in  the  Library  of  the  Medical  School  of 
Montpelier  there  is  a  collection  of  nearly  four  hundred 
songs,  secular  and  religious,  for  two,  three  or  four  voices. 
The  melodic  ideas  of  this  period,  as  indicated  by  these  manu- 
scripts, were  vague  and  the  rhythms  uncertain.  Yet  this 
music,  barbarous  as  it  appears  to  us,  was  not  the  product  of 
chance,  as  we  may  think;  it  had  its  rules,  just  like  the 
music  of  today,  the  art  of  composing  being  called  Discant, 
referred  to  in  Lesson  VL  Sometimes  these  singers  of  the 
I2th  and  13th  centuries  tried  to  invent  original  airs,  very 
frequently  they  would  take  several  familiar  airs,  two,  three 
or  four  and  combine  them  in  what  seems  to  us  a  crude  way, 
yet  in  a  manner  that  was  pleasing  to  the  hearers  of  their 
time.  The  style  of  the  songs  in  use  varied  greatly,  in  spite 
of  the  poverty  of  musical  resources.  In  general,  a  song 
for  one  voice  was  used  only  in  setting  the  Chansons  des 
Gestes,  Romances,  Pastourelles,  Serventois,  Lais  and  Jeux 
Partis.  The  discant  style  was  used  in  Motets,  Rondeaux, 
Conduits;  according  as  these  latter  compositions  were  for 
two,  three,  four  or  five  voices,  they  were  called  duplum, 
triplum,  qiiadruplum,  and  quintuplum. 

Troubadours. — The  cradle  of  the  French  troubadours  was 
in  Provence,  the  south  of  France.  They  usually  belonged  to 
the  nobility,  and,  instead  of  performing  their  own  pieces, 
had  them  performed  by  the  jongleurs,  only  occasionally  con- 
senting to  sing  for  some  company  of  high-born  nobles  and 
ladies.  We  mention  a  few  of  those  who  were  counted  among 
the  troubadours :  Richard  the  Lion-Hearted,  of  England, 
Count  William  of  Poitiers,  Rambout,  Count  of  Orange, 
Pierre  d'Auvergne,  Pierre  Ramon  de  Toulouse,  Pierre 
Vidal,  Pons  de  Capdueil,  poet,  singer  and  violinist,  Aimeric 
de  Pequilain,  Blagobres,  a  virtuoso  on  all  instruments,  Blon- 
del  de  Nesle,  the  Chatelain  de  Coucy,  Thibault,  King  of 
Navarre.  Clement,  the  French  historian,  gives  a  list  of  28 
trouveres  of  the  13th  century,  less  prominent  socially  than 


84 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


those  already  mentioned.  The  most  celebrated  of  them  and 
the  most  important  from  the  historian's  standpoint  is  Adam 
de  La  Hale  or  Halle,  born  1240.  He  wrote  many  pieces,  of 
which  we  have  thirty-three  songs,  some  rondcaux,  six 
motets,  some  Jcitx  Partis,  among  the  latter  being  a  work 
which  is  regarded  as  a  sort  of  comic  opera,  sometimes  called 
the  "first  opera" :  "Robin  and  Marion" ;  it  consists  of  dia- 
logue and  airs. 


4iishi^^Msm3§m^im^mm 


wm;^:^-^i;imi^^ki;:ii;iEem 


Air  from  Robin  and  Marion. 

Minnesingers. — While  the  trouveres  and  troubadours  were 
singing  in  Provence  and  in  France,  an  analogous  association 
was  forming  in  Germany,  to  which  the  name  Minnesingers 
{Minne,  old  German,  "love")  was  given.  A  list  of  names 
belonging  to  the  13th  century  includes  162  men,  among 
whom  are  several  occupying  thrones.  Names  that  have  in- 
terest for  us  are  Klingsor,  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach  (author 
of  a  poem  on  "Parcival"),  Gottfried  of  Strassburg  (author 
of  a  poem  "Tristan  and  Isolde"),  Walter  von  der  Vogel- 


Instbuments  of  the  Minnesingers. 


weide,   the  Chevalier  Tannhaenser  and   Heinrich   Meissen, 
called  Frauenlob.     Richard  Wagner  has  introduced  some 


THE    MASTERSINGERS. 


8.q 


of  these  men  in  his  operas.  The  versification  of  the  Minne- 
singers has  been  much  admired  by  critics ;  it  was  filled  with 
art  as  well  as  beauty.  Their  love  themes  dififered  from  those 
of  the  Provengal  singers  in  that  while  the  poetry  of  the  lat- 
ter declared  love  as  a  gallant  sentiment,  the  Germans  gave 
it  a  loftier  tone  by  mingling  it  with  the  Madonna  sentiment. 

Folk-Song. — While  the  German  nobles  were  employing 
themselves  in  the  service  of  art,  the  people  were  not  idle. 
They  had  their  tunes  and  their  verses.  The  Locheimet 
Liederhuch  (1452),  contains  a  number  of  songs,  some  of 
which  are  undoubtedly  very  old ;  they  are  melodious,  varied 
in  rhythm  and  full  of  naive  simplicity.  Some  of  them  are 
arranged  in  the  popular  three-voice  style,  and  show  correct 
part  leading,  the  inclination  being  toward  our  major  and 
minor  modes  instead  of  the  Church  Modes. 

Mastersingers.  —  The  most  noted  musical  organization 
among  the  people  was  that  of  the  Mastersingers  (celebrated 
in  Richard  Wagner's  opera)  ;  Nuremberg,  Mayence,  Strass- 
burg  and  Frankfort  were  their  centres.  The  members  were 
organized  into  a  Guild,  just  as  was  the  case  in  trade  affairs ; 


Hans  Sachs. 


86  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC, 

they  had  a  charter  frm  the  Emperor  Charles  IV.  Their 
poetry  and  music  were  not  elevated,  for  the  members  of  the 
Guild  were  not  of  a  standing  and  an  education  to  give  them 
real  skill  in  the  fine  arts.  The  records  of  the  Mastersingers 
show  that  the  members  were  principally  tradesmen,  such  as 
farriers,  armorers,  locksmiths,  tailors,  cobblers ;  yet  there 
were  some  members  wdio  could  lay  claims  to  culture  and 
higher  standing,  as  engravers,  physicians  and  a  few  gentle- 
men of  leisure.  The  most  conspicuous  of  them  all  was 
Hans  Sachs,  the  cobbler-poet  of  Nuremberg.  Their  works 
were  marked  by  monotonous  melody,  (for  the  pitch  is  but 
little  varied)  and  a  heavy,  ckunsy  rhythm.  To  make  up  for 
the  lack  of  real  artistic  idea  they  were  pedantic  to  an  ex- 
treme ;  composition  was  hedged  about  by  a  multitude  of 
rules,  to  which  composers  must  give  exact  obedience.  These 
rules  were  given  in  a  code  called  Tablatura.  They  held  con- 
tests in  which  the  members  vied  in  producing  works  ex- 
emplifying the  principles  of  the  organization. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

What  country  in  Europe  was  inhabited  by  the  Gauls? 

Where  did  the  Celts  live? 

What  countries  did  the  Scandinavians  inhabit? 

Give  an  account  of  their  music. 

Describe  the  work  of  minstrels,  jongleurs,  trouveres, 
troubadours. 

Where  did  the  Minnesingers  live? 

Tell  about  the  Mastersingers. 

Give  the  names  of  minstrels  or  other  singers  famous  in 
history. 

What  was  the  condition  of  the  artisan  classes  and  guilds 
in  the  larger  German  cities  at  this  time? 

If  possible,  get  the  stories  of  the  operas.  "Tannhauser"' 
and  the  "Mastersingers  of  Nuremberg"  and  read  them  pri- 
vately or  in  the  class. 

Suggestions  for  a  Review  of  Prev'ious  Lessons. 
Give  an  idea  of  the  process  by  which  music  becomes  an 
art  and  what  the  principles  of  music  are. 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS.  8/ 

What  sciences  are  drawn  upon,  and  how,  in  the  study  of 
the  beginnings  of  music? 

What  countries  offer  interest  to  the  student  of  musical 
beginnings?     How  are  these  races  related? 

Give  a  summary  of  music  among  the  Chinese,  The  Jap- 
anese.    The  Hindoos. 

Give  a  summary  of  music  among  the  Chaldeans.  The 
Egyptians.  The  Hebrews.  What  points  in  common  did 
these  races  show? 

Give  an  account  of  the  writers  on  music  among  the  Greeks, 
and  their  works. 

Describe  the  Scale  of  Conjunct  Tetrachords.  Disjunct 
Tetrachords.  The  Lesser  Perfect  System.  The  Greater 
Perfect  System. 

Give  the  names  of  the  various  Greek  Scales. 

Give  a  summary  of  the  Greek  Octave  System.  Describe 
the  Chromatic  and  Enharmonic  Scales. 

Describe  the  Greek  musical  instruments ;    notation. 

Tell  the  story  of  music  among  the  Romans.  How  did  the 
Church  Scales  originate?  State  the  differences  between  the 
Greek  and  the  Church  Scales. 

What  is  the  function  of  the  Dominant  in  the  Church 
Scales?  Describe  the  Hexachord  Scales  and  the  names  of 
the  sounds. 

Describe  early  systems  of  notation  in  music.  Describe 
early  attempts  at  Harmony,  What  was  Discant?  Give  a 
summary  of  the  statements  of  the  early  writers  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Harmony. 

Give  an  account  of  music  among  the  Gauls  and  Celts,  the 
Saxons,  Scandinavians,  etc. 

Tell  about  the  great  song  movement  outside  the  church, 
minstrels,  etc. ;   the  Minnesingers  ;    the  Mastersingers. 

Each  of  these  questions  or  several  together  may  be  made 
the  subject  of  a  written  paper,  giving  a  summary.  Students 
should  be  encouraged  to  make  critical  examination  of  a 
subject,  to  institute  comparisons  showing  progress,  and  the 
steps  that  mark  that  progress,  wherein  one  man  has  drawn 
from  a  predecessor,  wherein  new  things  have  been  done. 


LESSON  VIII. 

The  Causes  of  Polyphonic  Development  and  the 
Importance  of  the  Polyphonic  Era. 

In  the  Introduction  attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that 
the  labors  of  musicians  to  develop  an  art  of  music  varied 
between  the  effort  to  make  artistic  use  of  the  material  of 
music,  that  is,  to  give  it  definite  form,  and  to  make  it  ex- 
press the  feelings  of  mankind;  the  first  is  in  the  line  of 
construction,  the  second,  content.  The  period  we  now  take 
up  was  concerned  most  deeply,  in  its  earlier  stages,  as  we 
shall  see,  with  finding  adequate  and  logical  principles  of 
construction  by  which  a  musical  composition  of  more  or 
less  length  could  be  made  from  a  simple  musical  idea  and 
in  which  more  than  one  voice  could  be  used. 

This  period  should  be  studied  with  the  greatest  thorough- 
ness, and  all  possible  examples  of  music  of  the  composers 
representative  of  the  period  should  be  examined  that  one 
may  gather  a  clear  idea  of  the  beginnings  of  composition 
and  the  development  that  shows  from  one  generation  to  the 
next.  These  first  gropings  after  the  principles  are  matters 
of  extreme  interest  to  the  musician  when  he  compares  the 
results  in  the  music  of  the  twentieth  century. 

The  Polyphonic  and  Monophonic  Styles. — Students  fre- 
quently express  surprise  that  the  complicated  polyphonic  or 
contrapuntal  system,  which  began  to  take  shape  in  the  nth 
century,  should  appear  first,  historically.  The  pupil  in  com- 
position begins  his  studies  with  the  harmonic  or  mono- 
phonic  style  and  is  afterwards  inducted  into  the  polyphonic 
style.  Why  did  the  musical  art  develop  along  polyphonic 
and  not  on  the  simpler  lines?  It  is  intended  that  this  les- 
son and  those  that  follow  shall  show  some  of  the  influences 
(88) 


POLYPHONIC    AND    MONOPHONIC    STYLES.  89 

that  caused  the  Hne  of  development  to  move  in  a  polyphonic 
and  not  in  a  monophonic  direction.  One  thought  is  impor- 
tant to  note.  The  elements  of  the  simple,  monophonic  style 
were  present  in  the  music  of  the  early  centuries,  in  the 
people's  song,  principally  ;  since,  however,  it  was  the  Church 
that  determined  the  direction  of  artistic  composition,  the 
simple,  natural  principles  of  melody-making  yielded  pre- 
cedence to  a  more  highly  organized,  intellectual  process. 
Before  taking  up  the  consideration  of  these  matters  it  is 
well  to  get  an  understanding  of  the  terms  Monophony  and 
Polyphony. 

There  are  two  methods  of  giving  harmonic  support  to  a 
melody :  by  adding  an  accompaniment  of  chords,  in  sim- 
ple or  elaborated  form,  or  by  dividing  the  notes  of  the 
chords  among  three  or  more  voices,  which  notes  are  sung 
or  played  simultaneously  with  the  melody  (an  example  is 
furnished  by  any  simple  air  with  accompaniment  or  a  hymn- 
tune  in  four  parts,  in  which  the  "air"  or  melody  is  in  the 
soprano)  ;  this  is  Monophony,  (monos — Greek  for  "one," 
phone — "sound")  ;  a  second  method  is  to  add  to  the  given 
melody  other  melodies,  each  independent  in  its  movement 
up  and  down  and  in  the  duration  of  its  successive  sounds 
so  far  as  concerns  the  movement  and  duration  of  the 
sounds  in  the  given  melody.  This  is  Polyphony  (polus, 
Greek  for  "many"). 

Relation  of  Polyphonic  to  Modern  Music. — The  exact  re- 
lation of  the  Polyphonic  Era  to  modern  music  has  rarely 
been  correctly  estimated.  Writers  on  this  phase  of  the  de- 
velopment of  music  are  apt  to  lose  themselves  in  wonder  on 
noting  the  scientific  growth  of  the  art,  and  to  express  their 
great  surprise  that  so  peculiar  an  evolution  should  occur. 
This  view  of  the  question  is  totally  inadequate.  In  order 
truly  to  estimate  the  value  and  influence  of  the  period,  it 
is  necessary  to  inquire  into  the  properties  of  the  materials 
of  musical  construction  which  were  developed,  and  the  value 
of  those  materials  as  a  foundation  for  the  modern  struc- 
ture of  music,  apparently  so  different  from  the  early  forms 
but  yet  so  intimately  related  to  these  forms. 


go  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Polyphonic  music  presents  to  the  student  so  complex  a 
form  as  to  require  the  aid  of  material  imagery  in  order  to 
help  the  mind  to  a  proper  conception  of  it.  Perhaps  no 
more  misleading  idea  has  been  advanced  than  that  which 
makes  use  of  the  Gothic  cathedral  as  an  illustration  of  poly- 
phonic form.  It  is  true  that  in  its  multiplicity  and  yet  inter- 
relation of  details  the  cathedral  expresses  one  of  the  dom- 
inant ideas  of  polyphonic  music ;  but  here  the  likeness  fails. 
A  nicer  perception  of  the  subject  may  be  gained  by  com- 
paring polyphonic  fiiiisic  to  the  foundation  of  a  Gothic  cathe- 
dral, strong  and  massive  in  construction,  of  utmost  need 
to  the  permanence  of  the  building,  but  entirely  lost  sight  of 
in  a  general  view  of  the  whole  structure ;  the  importance 
of  the  comparison  being  the  likeness  of  the  complex  and 
highly-developed  superstructure  to  monophonic  or  modern 
music,  seemingly  so  independent  of  what  lies  beneath,  but 
in  reality,  dependent  upon,  and  intimately  connected  with 
the  established  basis.  Only  in  this  way  can  we  apprehend 
the  real  value  of  the  polyphonic  foundation  to  our  super- 
structure of  modern  music;  but  for  that  foundation  our 
modern  music  must  have  remained  in  its  infancy  for  cen- 
turies to  come.  No  freedom  of  artistic  expression  can  be 
gained  until  absolute  command  of  the  material  to  be  used 
has  been  obtained,  and  the  principles  thoroughly  assimilated 
by  the  artist. 

Polyphony  and  Monophony  Contrasted. — In  the  concrete, 
polyphonic  music  may  be  represented  by  a  series  of  lines 
representing  separate  and  distinct  melodies;  though  a  prin- 
cipal melody  is  always  used,  it  is  not  supported  by  chords 
of  harmonic  structure  but  by  other  melodies,  or  transposi- 
tions of  the  same  melody,  so  used  as  to  contrast  with  and 
support  each  other.  Polyphonic  music  was  essentially  mel- 
odic, and,  as  has  been  very  aptly  stated,  is  to  be  thought  of 
horizontally.  Monophonic  music  might  best  be  represented 
by  one  horizontal  line  supported  at  intervals  by  short,  per- 
pendicular lines.  In  this  case  the  horizontal  line  repre- 
sents the  only  distinct  melody,  and  the  perpendicular  lines 
the   subordinate   or   harmonic   support   or   accompaniment 


POLYPHONY    AND    MONOPHONY    CONTRASTED. 


91 


The  following  example  illustrates  the  process  of  using  the 
same  melody  to  furnish  the  principal  idea  and  also  the  ac- 
companying support,  the  latter  being  at  the  same  time  simply 
a  transposition  of  the  original  melody. 


Lento 
1st  Voi 


2d  V<iice 


Ffr 

i,K  ^-  r  r   ^-H 

j    A 

1 
'— p 

¥ 
^ 

-iL^-f 1 1 

8d  Voice 

I.L         ^                       J 

^    i 

-A 

-^ 

■A                                         

<»- 

Polyphonic  Style.  Bach  Fugue.  Subject  (or  melody) 
enters  in  measure  one ;  again,  transposed  to  the  fourth  be- 
low in  measure  three,  and  one  octave  below  in  measure  ten. 
Enough  is  cited  to  show  the  horizontal  structure  of  poly- 
phonic music. 

To  present  the  idea  more  clearly  and  for  the  sake  of  con- 
trast, a  melody  with  accompaniment  is  shown  in  the  next 
illustration,  giving  a  single  melody  with  the  subordinate 
chord  accompaniment,  the  chords  in  whole  notes  indicating 
the  harmonic  structure  or  basis. 


Beethoven,  Op.  24,  Monophonic  Style.  Sdiata  for  Violin 
and  Piano.  Melody  enters  in  measure  one  with  subor- 
dinate accompaniment. 


92  THE  -HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Search  for  Structural  Principles. — While  this  question  of 
the  relation  of  polyphonic  music  to  modern  music  may  not 
apply  to  the  first  step  in  the  development  of  the  polyphonic 
style,  yet  it  furnishes  a  preface  to  a  discussion  of  the  ear- 
liest stages  of  polyphonic  evolution.  The  period  preceding 
the  year  looo  A.  D.  was  truly  a  period  of  fundamental  re- 
search into  the  underlying  principles  of  melodic  and  har- 
monic structure ;  but  so  crude  and  hesitating  was  the  use 
of  what  was  found  that  it  is  certain  that  polyphonic  ma- 
terial was  entirely  misused  until  the  birth  of  "measured 
music"  dispelled  this  darkness  by  the  enlightening  influence 
of  Proportion  and  Form.  So  many  forms  of  musical 
growth,  such  as  came  in  later  years,  were  impossible  with- 
out the  mensural  proportion,  that  is,  music  written  so  as  to 
indicate  duration,  that  this  initial  period  gathered  but  a 
chaotic  mass  of  musical  material  which  was  left  undigested 
and  unassimilated  until  the  epoch  of  the  Paris  school. 

Beginning  of  Polyphonj  in  Greek  Magadizing. — The  mu- 
sic of  the  Middle  Ages  has  great  interest  for  the  historian 
and  the  student.  It  stands  between  our  music  and  the  music 
of  the  ancients ;  it  drove  its  roots  deep  into  the  ancient  time 
and  extended  its  branches  far  into  the  contemporaneous 
epoch.  It  is  the  struggle  between  the  two  elements,  the 
changes  foreshadowed  and  apparent  that  give  such  interest 
to  the  history  of  music  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Polyphonic  music  was  long  in  growing.  To  understand 
clearly,  one  must  examine  it  from  its  very  beginning  in 
Greek  magadizing,  referred  to  in  Lesson  V.  Music  for 
many  centuries  was,  in  all  its  most  important  phases,  en- 
tirely vocal.  The  ancients,  probably  because  of  the  crude 
forms  of  their  instruments,  valued  the  human  voice  as  the 
most  suitable  means  of  expressing  the  feelings  through  mu- 
sic, thus  causing  the  peculiar  phenomenon  of  the  extremely 
late  development  of  dissonances.  While  instruments  can 
easily  perform  even  the  harshest  of  the  dissonances,  it  is 
almost  impossible  for  untrained  voices  to  sing  other  than 
the  more  simple  consonances.  For  this  reason,  the  depen- 
dence on  the  voice  as  practically  the  only  medium  for  the 


DIAPHONY.  93 

expression  of  musical  ideas  forced  the  cultivators  of  music 
to  use  the  simple  consonances  of  the  octave,  fourth  and 
fifth.  In  its  earliest  stages  music  was  entirely  melodic  and 
was  limited  to  the  use  of  one  distinct  melody,  so  that,  no 
matter  how  many  were  singing,  but  one  melody  was  em- 
ployed. Soon  arose  the  problem  of  accommodating  the 
voices  of  boys  and  men  to  the  same  melody.  It  was  mani- 
festly impossible  to  have  men  and  boys  sing  in  unison,  be- 
cause of  the  difference  in  the  compass  of  their  voices ;  sa- 
the  Greeks  hit  upon  the  plan  of  causing  them  to  smg  in  oc- 
taves, a  plan  which  science  sanctioned,  for  had  not  Pythag- 
oras proven  that  the  octave,  after  the  unison,  was  the  most 
perfect  consonance?  This  the  Greeks  called  Magadizing. 
Why  the  Greeks,  knowing  as  they  did  the  other  conso- 
nances, did  not  magadize  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cannot  be 
explained;  the  only  argument  that  can  be  advanced  is,  that 
their  melodies  were  so  limited  in  range  that  the  voice  of 
any  man,  whether  tenor  or  bass,  could  without  difficulty 
reach  the  highest  or  lowest  tones  of  a  melody  in  unison. 
While  magadizing  among  the  Greeks  cannot  be  counted  as 
a  great  advance  toward  the  realm  of  polyphony  and  har- 
mony, yet  it  was  the  first  important  step  in  the  evolution, 
and  as  such,  is  important.  So  far,  the  voices  singing  simul- 
taneously, though  at  a  different  pitch,  and  moving  together 
in  similar  time  values,  followed  monophonic  methods. 

Organum  the  Next  Step. — Further  development  did  not" 
take  place  until  the  destruction  of  Greek  civilization  had 
occurred  and  a  sufficient  lapse  of  time  had  allowed  the  Chris- 
tian Church  to  establish  itself:  in  a  religious  sense,  in  the 
hearts  of  the  people,  and  in  a  permanent  sense,  by  building 
churches  and  monasteries.  In  these  monasteries  we  find 
the  next  great  advance  in  magadizing,  though  now  under 
the  name  of  Diaphony  or  Organum.  The  musical  learning 
of  the  time  was  painfully  inadequate  for  the  uses  to  which 
it  was  put.  There  remained  in  existence  only  a  few  of  the 
Greek  scientific  scales,  and  those  wofully  distorted  in  form; 
no  simple  notation  or  musical  literature ;  and  in  all  prob- 
ability, only  a  tradition  in  regard  to  the  melodic  construction 


94 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 


and  magadizirif:;-.  Perhaps  this  was  just  as  well,  however, 
for  the  problem  confronting-  these  monks  differed  greatly 
from  that  solved  by  the  Greeks.  In  the  monasteries  only 
men's  voices  were  used,  and  these  without  si)ecial  regard 
to  the  compass.  The  problem  was  this :  Given  a  melody  to 
sing,  using  men's  voices  of  every  range,  from  high  tenor  to 
Jow  bass,  without  using  independent  parts.  The  difficulties 
were  two  in  number:  they  had  no  conception  of  indepen- 
dent parts,  and  their  melodies  were  of  greater  range  than 
those  of  the  Greeks,  thus  forbidding  the  practice  of  singing 
entirely  in  the  octave  or  unison.  The  solution  was  reached 
in  the  following  way,  as  indicated  in  the  preceding  lesson : 
If  the  octave,  unison,  fourth  and  fifth  were  consonances, 
why  not  sing  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  as  well  as  in  the  unison 
and  octave?  They  had  as  yet  no  idea  of  singing  two  dis- 
tinct melodies  at  the  same  time,  but  thought  only  of  sing- 
ing the  same  melody  in  the  most  consonant  or  agreeable 
manner.  The  result  was  music  which  sounded  like  the  fol- 
lowing example;  while  it  was  crude  and  harsh,  it  gave 
every  monk  opportunity  to  sing  simultaneously  the  same 
melody,  no  matter  what  the  range  of  his  voice : 


About  the  close  of  the  ninth  century,  as  we  learned  in 
Lesson  VI,  at  the  time  of  Otger  or  Odo,  an  abbot  of  Provence, 
in  France,  organizing  had  so  developed  as  to  be  written  for 
as  many  as  four  parts,  using,  however,  only  the  perfect  con- 
sonances, as  the  next  example  will  show.  In  reality  there 
are  but  two  parts,  as  the  two  lower  voices  double  the  upper. 


6      * 

b 

ft  (Mo 

-o- 

-o- 

-vw- 

o 

-nr 

-o- 

-Ttr- 

-o- 

-o 

o 

.jO_ 

-Tr» — 

-fj- 

_o_ 

_Ol- 

~n — 1 

-^ ^ "     o — g  ..     o     "    o     "    .»     1 

Secular  Organum. — The  most  remarkable  advance  is 
shown  in  a  form  called  Secular  Organum,  probably  be- 
cause of  some  relation  to  the  Folk-song  and  the  common 


THE    MEN    OF   THE   PERIOD.  95 

people.  This  form  showed  the  use  not  only  of  perfect  con- 
sonances but  oi  the  imperfect  consonance  of  the  third ;  and, 
wonderful  to  relate,  of  a  second,  though  only  in  a  passing 
sense.  That  such  a  discord  should  be  used  is  a  remarkable 
commentary  on  the  inherent  sense  of  harmony  which  seemed 
to  exist  naturally,  even  at  that  early  day.  This  form  may 
have  had  its  germ  in  the  drone  bass  supplied  by  the  bagpipe, 
which  figured  in  the  music  of  the  people. 

•O-     -••     -O-     .il. 


Example  of  Secular  Organum  showing  use  of  third  and 
second. 

The  Workers. — Two  men,  as  was  shown  in  the  preceding 
lesson,  were  instrumental  in  remarkably  furthering  this 
growth  of  music.  Hucbald,  of  St.  Amand,  in  Flanders,  was 
born  in  840  A.  D.  and  died  in  930.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Otger  of  Provence,  and  it  is  through  the  latter  that  some 
of  Hucbald's  work  is  preserved.  Hucbald  probably  never 
wrote  in  organum  of  more  than  two  parts,  though  mention 
is  made  of  an  organum  credited  to  him  and  having  in  ad- 
dition to  the  two  voices,  a  third  singing  a  pedal-point,  or 
a  bass  on  one  single  tone.  His  principal  work  is  a  manu- 
script on  organum,  a  work  of  great  reference  value.  Gnido 
of  Arezzo,  born  990,  died  1050,  is  of  even  more  importance. 
Unlike  Hucbald  and  Otger,  he  seems  to  have  been  more 
than  a  secluded  monk,  for  he  visited  Rome  and  was  a  well- 
known  figure  in  the  church.  He  was  a  most  active  teacher, 
and  while  his  chief  work  was  in  developing  notation,  he 
nevertheless  contributed  important  material  in  the  form  of 
organum,  writing  in  as  many  as  four  parts,  though  in  re- 
spect to  the  use  of  the  less  perfect  consonances  he  was 
very  little  freer  than  Hucbald. 

A  short  example,  extracted  from  an  nth  century  three- 
part  composition,  is  given  here  as  a  specimen  of  the  com- 
binations and  successions  that  were  tolerated  by  the  ears  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  to  show  the  tendency  toward  greater 


96 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 


freedom  in  the  direction  of  the  motion  of  the  parts,  point- 
ing toward  those  principles  which  later  formed  the  science 
of  Counterpoint. 


TENOR  (sounds  octave  lower) 


Several  interesting  points  may  be  seen  in  this  barbarous 
composition :  First,  the  imitation  by  the  second  tenor  of  the 
phrase  given  by  the  first  tenor.  This  is  evidently  inten- 
tional, as  this  phrase  occurs  three  times  in  the  course  of  the 
composition  and  is  imitated  in  the  same  way  every  time. 
This  same  phrase  occurs  near  the  end  of  the  bass  part 
(which  is  the  theme  or  Cantus)  and  it  may  have  been  chosen 
for  this  very  reason  for  use  in  the  Discant  parts.  Secondly, 
the  initial  and  final  chords,  viz. :  root,  fifth  and  octave — 
are  familiar  to  all  students  of  Strict  Counterpoint.  Writers 
as  late  as  Cherubini  call  this  combination  the  best  for  be- 
ginning and  ending  Three  Part  Counterpoint. 

Development  Determined  by  the  Church. — The  Church  and 
its  beliefs  were  responsible  for  this  singular  yet  not  illogical 
development.  Considering  the  peculiar  monastic  conditions, 
the  evolution  could  not  be  expected  to  occur  along  lines 
which  it  would  have  taken  had  it  been  developed  among 
the  people  and  under  the  influence  of  the  Folk-song.  The 
learning  of  these  monks  was  largely  in  church  lore,  and 
this,  with  a  desire  for  a  peculiar  church  music,  led  to  the 
discarding  of  the  natural  and  vivacious  melodies  and 
rhythms  of  the  people,  for  the  scientific  and  ascetic  music 
and  discipline  of  monastic  religion.  The  one  great  ad- 
vantage of  this  period  to  modern  music  was  the  constant 
association  with  the  principal  intervals  of  the  scale;    an 


INFLUENCE   OF   THE   CHURCH.  97 

association  which  may  be  partially  responsible  for  our  mod- 
ern Tonic  and  Dominant  harmonies.  On  the  whole,  this 
period  represents  the  marking  out  of  the  lines  of  musical 
development  for  the  eight  centuries  following,  though  the 
men  responsible  for  this  beginning  could  hardly  have  known 
or  appreciated  the  impetus  which  was  to  be  given  poly- 
phonic music  by  the  invention  of  their  simple  devices  to 
accommodate  voices  of  different  compass  and  to  secure  con- 
certed singing. 

References. 

Oxford  History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 

Naumann. — History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  articles  on 
Harmony,  Schools  of  Composition,  and  Organum. 

Hope. — Mediaeval  Music. 

Williams.  —  Music  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  Hymn  to 
Apollo.     (Note  small  compass  of  the  melody.) 

Rowbotham. — History  of  Music.  Chapter  on  "Music  in 
the  Monasteries." 

Dickinson. — History  of  Music  in  the  Western  Church. 

Parry. — Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,  Chapter  IV. 


Questions  and  Suggestions. 

What  is  meant  by  Monophony?    Polyphony? 

Make  an  analogy  between  Polyphonic  music  and  Architec- 
ture. 

Contrast  Polyphony  and  Monophony  by  the  use  of  lines. 

What  was  the  nature  of  the  researches  in  music  before 
looo  A.  D.? 

How  did  the  Greek  magadizing  influence  musical  de- 
velopment ? 

What  is  Organum  ?    Secular  Organum  ? 

Who  were  the  prominent  musicians  of  this  period  ? 

Hov/  did  the  Church  influence  musical  development? 


98  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

The  teacher  or  one  of  the  pupils  may  give  a  summary  of 
the  Gothic  style  of  architecture.  Another  pupil  may  give 
the  most  not  d  historical  events  coinciding  with  this  period ; 
also  historical  characters.  Scholarship  was  cherished  prin- 
cipally in  the  Church  and  in  the  monasteries,  hence  the  pre- 
dominance of  Churchmen  in  the  early  history  of  music. 
Hucbald  lived  during  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great;  Guido 
died  16  years  before  the  battle  of  Hastings  (1066).  A 
useful  device  in  fixing  the  details  of  a  lesson  is  for  the 
teacher  to  arrange  that  the  pupils  shall  question  him,  the 
questions  to  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  show  that  they  know 
the  lesson  thoroughly. 


LESSON  IX. 

The  Paris  School. 

Influence  of  Art  on  Music. — All  of  the  fine  arts,  with  the 
exception  of  Music  had,  by  the  year  iioo,  reached  a  fairly 
high  stage  of  development  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  to  a  great  extent  composed  of  concrete  materials. 
Music,  owing  to  its  lack  of  the  concrete  and  the  inability 
of  men  literally  to  place  their  hands  upon  its  material,  had 
lagged  behind,  so  that  in  iioo  we  find  only  a  small  amount 
of  material,  and  that  in  a  most  chaotic  condition.  This 
material  was,  however,  sufficient  to  produce  definite  mu- 
sical forms  if  united  into  a  homogeneous  whole;  such  a 
state,  however,  could  be  produced  only  as  the  result  of 
some  great  influence  which  would  galvanize  the  component 
parts  into  action.  Fortunately,  there  was  just  such  an  in- 
fluence, one  which  had  passed  through  an  evolution  similar 
to  that  needed  in  music,  though  because  of  its  more  con- 
crete form  and  its  necessity  to  man,  this  evolution  had 
occurred  at  a  proportionately  earlier  date.  This  influence 
was  an  art  form,  a  phase  of  architecture  known  as  the 
Gothic.  Gothic  architecture  was  a  form  built  up  by  the 
unifying  of  the  principal  styles  of  architecture  into  one 
uniform  whole,  and  composed  of  a  multiplicity  of  details, 
but  of  such  evident  relation  to  each  other  as  to  make  a  dis- 
tinct art  form.  This  form  was  first  used  in  Paris  about 
the  year  looo  A.  D.  Music  was,  approximately,  in  the  same 
condition  as  Architecture  before  the  birth  of  the  Gothic 
principle,  and  needed  a  stimulus,  a  comrade  art  undergoing 
much  the  same  evolution,  to  start  it  on  its  path  of  poly- 
phonic development.  In  the  year  iioo  musical  chaos  be- 
came united  into  one  uniform  art  by  means  of  Measured 
Music  or  Proportion,  thus  allowing  the  systematizing  of 

(99) 


lOO  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

the  mass  of  then  existing  material,  and  the  construction  of 
definite  art  forms.  Since  Architecture  had  undergone  just 
such  a  change  one  century  before,  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  the  effect  of  this  change  was  the  starting  of  a  similar 
one  in  Music,  though  the  result  was  not  to  show  until  one 
hundred  years  after  its  occurrence  in  the  kindred  art. 

Paris  the  Centre  of  Europe. — It  was  natural  that  these 
two  great  changes  should  take  place  in  Paris,  at  that  time 
the  centre  of  wealth  and  learning  for  all  Europe.  Paris, 
in  addition  to  its  many  other  advantages,  had  long  pos- 
sessed a  great  university  which  had  produced  many  schol- 
ars and  theologians.  The  influence  of  the  Church  in  all 
art  was  then  paramount,  for  all  art  was  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  Church ;  Architecture  gave  to  the  Church 
its  Gothic  cathedrals ;  Painting  and  Frescoing  its  marvel- 
ous interior  decorations ;  while  Music  made  possible  the 
richer  forms  of  the  service  or  liturgy.  In  that  sense  the 
Church,  in  its  centre  of  theological  study,  would  undoubt- 
edly react  on  the  practice  of  music  and  produce  more  beau- 
tiful forms  for  the  service.  In  this  period  it  is  worthy  of 
note  that  all  the  famous  musicians,  as  before,  were  monks, 
or  men  employed  in  the  Church,  and  the  reason  for  this 
condition  is  plain:  there  was  no  art  of  music  outside  of 
the  Church. 

Measured  Music. — Just  as  the  use  of  many  voices  pro- 
duced singing  in  parts,  so  did  it  produce  Measured  Music. 
To  make  it  possible  to  use  more  than  two  parts  at  the 
same  time  it  was  necessary  to  have  some  definite  agreement 
as  to  the. value  of  the  notes,  in  order  to  have  certain  uni- 
form times  for  beginning,  endmg  and  performing  the  dif- 
ferent portions  of  a  composition  agreeably ;  and  so  Mea- 
sured Music  was  born.  It  may  be  said  here  that  the  dif- 
ferent metrical  divisions  were  not  shown  by  means  of  bar 
lines  as  we  now  use  them,  but  by  different  groupings  of 
the  notes,  the  time  value  of  each  depending  on  its  relative 
position  to  the  others.  Perhaps  of  all  forms  produced  by 
this  system,  the  Organum  Purum  was  the  earliest  and  most 
peculiar.     It  consisted  of  a  Cantus  Firmus  set  to  words. 


FORMS    DEVELOPED. 


lOI 


and  metrical  in  form ;  a  second  voice  freely  extemporized 
a  higher  part,  evidently  the  only  rule  being  that  the  two 
finish  together.  At  a  late  date,  strict  Discant  sometimes, 
alternated  with  the  old  Organum,  making  it  much  less  free 
in  character. 

The  Important  Forms. — In  reality,  the  important  forms 
produced  were  entirely  in  strict  metrical  divisions.  i)i 
these,  the  most  important  were  the  so-called  strict  Organum, 
the  Conductus,  the  Roundel  and  the  Motet.  Of  the  strict 
Organum  very  little  is  known,  excepting  that  it  was  a 
strictly  metrical  form,  differing,  in  that  sense  only,  from 
the  Organum  Purum;  it  had  also  words  for  all  parts  and 
not  only  for  the  Cantus  Firmus,  as  had  the  older  forms. 
The  Conductus,  from  the  Latin  conduccrc,  to  conduct,  was 
important,  and  was  a  secular  form  having  as  its  basis  a 
popular  melody  or  a  newly  invented  one,  secular  words 
and  much  freer  intervals  than  church  compositions.  Each 
part  was  expected  to  be  melodious ;  and  it  varied  from  two 
to  four  in  the  number  of  voices  used.  It  was  sung  during 
a  march,  a  funeral  cortege  or  procession. 


Conductus  for  three  voices  showing  that  each  part  is  a 
distinct  melody.     Oxford  History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 

The  Roundel,  from  an  historical  view-point,  was  the 
most  important  form,  for  in  it  much  use  was  made  of  Im- 
itation. It  can  best  be  explained  in  the  words  of  Walter 
Odington,  a  theorist  of  the  time:  "Let  a  melody,  with  or 
without  a  text,  in  one  of  the  regular  modes  of  rhythm,  and 
as  beautiful  as  possible,  be  devised,  and  let  each  voice  sing 
this  in  turn.  And  at  the  same  time  let  other  melodies  be 
devised  to  accompany  it  in  the  second  and  (if  there  be  three 


102 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 


voices)  in  the  third  voice ;  let  them  proceed  in  conso- 
nances, and  so  that  when  one  voice  ascends  another  de- 
scends, and  let  the  third  not  follow  too  closely  the  move- 
ment of  either  of  the  others,  except  perhaps  for  the  sake 
of  greater  beauty.  And  let  all  of  these  melodies  be  sung 
by  each  voice  in  turn."  While  the  use  of  Imitation  is  im- 
portant in  that  it  recognizes  the  repetition  of  a  set  phrase 
as  an  aid  to  Unity,  its  importance  is  detracted  from,  at  least 
at  this  period,  because  it  was  not  used  in  any  of  the  other 
forms  then  in  vogue. 


J  fl 

s 

*      c 

-#L    "    ir- 

-f—T' — h 

^ — t- 

^_&_ 

-o     p 

-p-r> — h 

„    _ 

-<M =1— 

1  r  '■■> 

»     rt- 

-o — 

1 

— \— 

r  r  fj 

if- 

s 

-Al'  ."     f 

— f^ 

f- 

■^ — ■ — 

"  fi 

..  f" 

■^ — ^ 

" — 

W— ^ 

/5         * 

1— 

1. 

— 1— 

« 

— [— 

fff,^     "      P 

-" — p- 

-«— f^ 

-^^ — "-^ 

-"— f— 

a — 

— h- 

— -■ — 

■W L_- 

"  —  . 

..  —l- 

i 

Roundel  for  three  voices  showing  Imitation,  There  are 
six  distinct  melodic  phrases,  and  by  numbering  these  where- 
ever  they  appear,  the  Imitation  can  readily  be  observed. 

Imitation  a  Means  of  Securing  Unity. — An  art  form  must 
submit  to  the  laws  of  the  human  mind,  which  demand  that 
a  work  of  art  shall  show  three  principles :  Unity,  Variety  or 


IMITATION    A    MEANS   TO    SECURE    UNITY.  IO3 

Contrast  and  Proportion  or  Symmetry.  The  problem  set 
before  the  old  composers  was  to  produce  musical  works 
which  should  exhibit  obedience  to  the  canons  of  art  as  de- 
termined in  the  sister  arts  which  had  already  reached  great 
perfection.  Unity  in  a  musical  work  means  that  it  is  a 
development  of  one  central  thought,  in  elaborate  works,  of 
several  leading  ideas.  The  germ  of  a  musical  composition 
is  in  the  Theme.  The  composer's  problem  is  to  elaborate  a 
piece  of  some  length  from  this  Theme,  in  that  way  to  secure 
Unity  of  idea.  If  he  were  limited  to  writing  in  one  part, 
he  would  be  compelled  to  repeat  the  Theme  a  number  of 
times,  either  on  the  same  or  on  a  different  degree.  When 
he  must  write  for  three  or  more  voices  the  problem  be- 
comes more  complicated.  Let  us  imagine  a  composer  of 
the  1 2th  century  at  his  work.  He  has  a  theme  to  use,  like 
the  one  in  the  example  at  the  end  of  the  preceding  para- 
graph, which  he  is  to  use  in  three  parts.  From  the  com- 
posers of  the  preceding  centuries  he  received  the  principle 
of  transposing  the  theme  a  fourth  or  fifth  or  octave  higher 
or  lower,  thus  singing  the  same  melody  simultaneously  at 
different  pitches;  but  this  he  rejects  as  crude;  he  has 
passed  that  stage  and  wishes  to  use  a  newer,  more  ad- 
vanced method.  Obviously  his  recourse  will  be  to  let  each 
of  the  other  two  voices  sing  the  opening  theme  successively 
at  the  same  pitch.  To  stop  with  this  change  would  result 
only  in  three  successive  repetitions  of  the  opening  theme; 
so  he  makes  the  second  and  third  voices  sing  the  phrases 
used  by  the  first  voice  after  the  first  theme  has  been  given, 
which  serve  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  second  and  third 
entries  of  the  first  theme;  thus  all  the  voices  sing  the 
various  phrases,  at  different  times  and  in  different  succes- 
sions, as  shown  by  the  numbering  of  the  phrases.  In  later 
times  the  principal  phrases  were  sung  successively  and  trans- 
posed at  the  same  time.  This  principle  of  Imitation  is  the 
very  foundation  of  the  later  complicated  polyphonic  system. 
The  Motet. — In  the  form  of  the  Motet  we  note  many 
peculiarities.  Each  voice  had  different  words,  though  the 
Tenor  or  foundation  of  the  composition  used  but  one  single 


I04 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 


word  throughout ;  also,  the  Tenor  was  composed  of  a  cer- 
tain metrical  and  melodic  figure  closely  adhered  to  and 
built  up  out  of  some  popular  song.  The  words  and  the 
form  were  sacred  in  that  they  were  used  in  worship. 

The  Men  of  the  Time. — -There  are  many  men  who  wrote 
in  these  forms  but  it  is  only  necessary  to  examine  those  of 
importance.  Franco  of  Cologne  (i  150-1220),  (dates  dis- 
puted), an  organist,  was  probably  the  pioneer  in  the  adop- 
tion of  Measured  Music.  He  first  advocated  the  use  of 
triple  meter  and  classified  the  dissonances  of  major  and 
minor  thirds  and  sixths.  He  used  his  influence  against  the 
use  of  consecutive  fourths  and  fifths,  and  for  the  use  of 
contrary  motion.  The  result  is  in  many  ways  shown  in 
the  following  example: 


Leonin  (about  1140)  and  Perotin  (his  pupil)  were  or- 
ganists at  Notre  Dame  in  Paris.  The  former  was  note- 
worthy in  the  reform  of  notation,  while  the  latter  is  known 
principally  for  his  use  of  crude  Imitation,  and  a  tendency 
not  to  use  consecutive  fourths  and  fifths,  though  he  never 
entirely  succeeded   in  eradicating  them.     Franco  of  Paris 

(1150 ),  often  confused  with  his  namesake  of  Cologne, 

was  a  theoretician,  improved  notation,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
on  Mensural  Music.  Jean  de  G-arlande  (i  170-125 — )  not 
only  wrote  a  very  valuable  treatise  on  Mensural  Music, 
but  was  also  a  composer  of  note;  his  writings  contained 
specimens  of  Double  Counterpoint,  though  probably  used 
without  the  intention  of  producing  them.  Jerome  de  Mo- 
ravie  (1260)  wrote  a  scholarly  treatise  on  Discant,  and 
such  was  his  ability  that  he  illustrated  it  with  his  own 
compositions,  making  it  one  of  the  most  valuable  reference 
works  in  existence.  It  is  worthy  of  mention  that  all  of 
these  men  were  churchmeii  in  the  sense  that  their  work 


SUMMARY.  105 

was  all  done  in,  or  with  the  approval  of,  the  Church,  and 
was  therefore  influenced  by  the  peculiar  beliefs  and  cus- 
toms then  obtaining  in  that  institution.  This  point  must 
ever  be  kept  in  mind,  for  any  prolonged  contact  with  Folk- 
music  must  have  changed  the  entire  development  of  the 
art;  therefore  we  must  regard  the  Church  as  the  dominant 
influence  of  early  music. 

Summary. — The  work  of  this  period  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. First  we  see  the  influence  of  the  Gothic  in 
architecture,  producing  a  corresponding  unity  in  music ;  a 
unity  which  was  concomitant  with  Measured  or  Mensural 
Music.  We  next  see  the  attempt  to  combine  metrical  with 
unmetrical  forms  in  the  Organum  Purum,  and  the  final 
result  in  the  strict  form  of  Organum.  Then  we  note  the 
freedom  shown  in  the  Conductus,  Roundel  and  Motet,  as 
well  as  freedom  in  the  use  of  more  pleasing  intervals,  with 
the  tendency  to  eradicate  consecutive  fourths  and  fifths; 
the  use  of  contrary  motion  instead  of  parallel,  and  the  con- 
sequent melodic  freedom  of  the  voices,  and  finally  the  use 
of  Imitation,  though  perhaps  unintentionally,  except  in  the 
Roundel.  This  period  then  marks  the  acquisition  not  only 
of  new  intervals,  new  forms,  new  styles  of  melodic  writing, 
imitation,  measured  music  and  simple  counterpoint  of  note 
against  note,  but  also  forms  the  foundation  for  a  rapid  de- 
velopment by  bequeathing  to  the  Gallo-Belgic  School  a 
wealth  of  material,  bound  up  with  rules  and  only  half- 
suspected  as  to  its  value,  it  is  true,  but  broad  and  firm 
enough  to  sustain  a  mighty  structure  of  true  Polyphonic 
Music. 

References. 

Naumann. — History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians.  Article  on 
Schools  of  Composition,  section  relating  to  early  French 
music. 

Hope. — Mediaeval  Music.  Technical  Explanation  of  Men- 
sural Music. 

Oxford  History  of  Music,  Vol.  I,  pages  74-388.  Tech- 
nical explanation  of  measured  music. 


I06  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Luebke. — History  of  Art,  for  an  account  of  Byzantine, 
Romanesque  and  Gothic  Architecture. 

Guizot. — History  of  France,  for  an  account  of  Paris  in 
lioo,  with  a  statement  of  manners  and  customs. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

How  did  art  influence  music? 

What  made  Paris  the  centre  of  Europe? 

What  was  Measured  Music? 

What  forms  of  music  were  developed  in  this  period? 
Explain  them. 

Why  is  Imitation  a  logical  process  toward  securing  Unity 
in  musical  construction? 

Who  are  leading  composers  of  this  period? 

What  are  the  successive  steps  of  development  as  shown 
in  this  period  ? 

The  historical  period  corresponding  with  this  lesson  ex- 
tends from  the  death  of  William  Rufus,  son  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  to  the  death  of  Richard  the  Lion-Hearted,  and 
includes  the  Crusade  in  which  that  hero  was  the  principal 
figure.  It  will  be  remembered  that  Richard  was  a  great 
patron  of  minstrelsy. 


LESSON  X. 


The  Gallo-Belgic  School. 

A  New  Art  Centre. — The  development  of  any  art,  and 
more  especially  Music,  requires  the  dominance  of  wealth, 
learning  and  general  civilizing  forces,  to  form  an  epoch- 
marking  school.  Paris  for  a  time  satisfactorily  filled  these 
conditions,  and  then  gave  place  to  a  school,  stronger  and 
better  equipped :  that  of  the  Netherlands.  There  were 
several  reasons  for  this  change  in  the  centre  of  musical  ac- 
tivity. So  long  as  Paris  was  dominant  in  wealth  and  civil- 
ization, and  so  long  as  she  maintained  her  supremacy  in 
the  intellectual  fields  of  the  Church  and  university,  so  long 
did  she  retain  the  centre  of  culture;  but  when  her  wealth 
became  such  as  to  produce  degeneracy  in  the  taste  for  pure 
art,  and  love  of  show  rather  than  real  worth  became  pre- 
dominant, then  her  native  pupils  began  to  losie  their  intel- 
lectual strength,  and  the  pupils  from  foreign  countries  be- 
gan to  furnish  the  real  culture.  The  establishment  of  the 
Papal  See  at  Avignon  in  the  south  of  France  doubtless  con- 
tributed^to  the  supremacy  of  France  in  music  and  the  liberal 
arts.  When  the  See  was  restored  to  Rome,  in  1377,  Paris 
and  her  school  of  music  were  relegated  to  the  background. 
From  this  period  on  it  was  but  a  matter  of  time  for  these 
pupils  to  carry  the  centre  of  musical  culture  from  Paris  to 
a  place  possessing  a  foundation  for  musical  growth,  and  a 
greater  number  of  strong  minded  scholars,  and  where  polit- 
ical conditions  were  favorable.  The  Netherlands  surpassed 
Paris  in  all  of  these  important  particulars,  though  not  at 
the  time  when  the  Paris  School  ceased  to  be  of  importance. 
There  was  a  school  of  transition  which  filled  the  space  left 
between  the  important  work  of  Paris  and  the  supremacy 

(107) 


I08  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

of  the  Netherlands;  that  school  was  the  Gallo-Bel^ic,  lo- 
cated northeast  from  Paris  on  the  horderline  hetween  France 
and  Belgium,  Tournay  being  the  centre.  The  school  at 
Paris  was  occupied  in  acquiring  material  for  use ;  the 
school  of  the  Netherlands  developed  polyphonic  music  emo- 
tionally ;  the  step  from  acquisition  to  arrangement  of  ma- 
terial was  necessary  before  emotional  development  could 
occur,  and  that  was  the  work  of  the  Cjallo-Belgic  School. 
This  school  was  located  in  the  country  of  Hucbald  and 
Odo,  who  had  built  up  there,  a  little  while  before,  a  sys- 
tem of  music  W'hich  was  the  foundation  of  the  polyphonic 
style,  and  which  had  prepared  the  people  for  a  culture  of 
greater  value  and  importance.  Thus  we  see  that  musical 
development  followed  the  line  of  greatest  preparation,  and 
utilized  the  preparatory  work  furnished  by  these  two  men. 
And  finally,  it  was  a  direct  step  toward  the  Netherlands 
which  were  even  then  beginning  the  struggle  in  which  they 
were  victorious,  for  supremacy  in  commerce,  art,  and  music. 
Contribution  of  the  Paris  School. — When  the  Paris  school 
ceased  to  be  of  utmost  importance  to  the  world  of  music  it 
had  bequeathed  to  the  later  schools  Measured  Music,  and 
its  forms  of  Organum,  Motet,  Conductus  and  Roundel,  and 
the  use  of  certain  not  unpleasing  intervals,  though  occasional 
consecutive  fourths,  fifths,  and  octaves  appeared.  It  was, 
then,  the  business  of  the  Gallo-Belgic  school  to  refine  these 
intervals,  develop  measured  music,  and  so  improve  and  de- 
velop these  old  primary  forms,  eliminating  some  and  evolv- 
ing others,  as  to  give  the  school  of  the  Netherlands,  one 
century  later,  forms  pleasing  in  intervals  and  of  sufficient 
unity  and  design  to  afford  opportunity  for  the.  infusion  of 
the  emotional.  In  the  matter  of  intervals  much  was  done 
to  develop  and  use  the  old  ones,  excepting  the  consecutive 
fourths  and  fifths  which  were  abolished  never  to  appear 
again,  and  many  new,  or  previously  unused  intervals,  were 
made  use  of.  In  the  matter  of  forms,  we  hear  no  more  of 
the  crude  Organum  and  Conductus,  but  a  little  about  the 
Motet,  and  nothing  at  all  in  regard  to  the  Roundel,  as  such. 
It  is,  however,  due  entirely  to  this  last  form  that  polyphonic 


THE    USE   OF    IMITATION. 


log 


music  developed ;  though  we  hear  no  more  of  tlic  Roundel, 
we  do  hear  much  in  regard  to  the  Canon,  and  the  Canon 
was  but  a  highly  developed  species  of  the  Roundel. 

Imitation  and  the  Canon. — The  use  of  Imitation,  as  we 
have  seen,  gradually  became  more  and  more  important. 
The  old  monks,  in  the  very  beginning,  imitated  melody  in 
the  fourth  and  fifth;  at  the  time  of  the  Paris  school  these 
melodies  were  combined  with  new  ones  making  Imitation 
with  more  than  one  melody,  though  the  melody  underwent 
no  real  organic  development.  Now  we  see  in  the  incep- 
tion of  the  Canon  a  development  of  real  Imitation  of  only 
one  melody,  but  given  Variety  by  use  of  the  devices  of  In- 
version, Augmentation,  Diminution,  etc.  And  not  only  did 
this  occur  in  the  Canon,  but  we  find  it  also  in  the  other 
forms,  in  a  freer  style,  adding  materially  to  the  Unity.  Imi- 
tation is  the  foundation  principle  of  polyphonic  music,  and 
this  principle  was  present  in  the  crude  efforts  of  the  old 
monks,  in  the  more  intelligent  efforts  of  the  Paris  school, 
and  now  for  the  first  time,  receives,  in  the  Gallo-Belgic 
school,  a  partial  recognition  of  its  real  value,  and  a  com- 
mensurate use. 


Naumann,  History  of  Music,  Vol.  I,  page  315,  extract 
from  a  chanson  by  Dufay.  Figure  i  shows  the  principal 
melody,  figure  2  shows  the  same  at  the  fifth  below.  The 
entire  chanson  is  quoted  in  Naumann  with  the  various  im- 
itations fairly  well  marked;    the  student  should  refer  to  it. 

The  Value  of  Imitation. — We  must  understand,  however, 
that  mere  Imitation  is  in  itself  not  a  remarkable  phenom- 
enon.   We  imitate,  more  or  less  unconsciously,  in  all  arts. 


no  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

and  even  in  our  daily  habits ;  but  this  would  be  of  no  last- 
ing importance  did  we  not  take  that  imitation  as  a  founda- 
tion for  future  development,  as  did  the  composers  of  this 
school.  And  in  these  polyphonic  schools  the  imitation  was 
unintentional,  as  a  definite  aid  to  the  structure  of  a  musical 
idea,  until  it  was  seen  that  the  imitation  must  be  confined 
to  one  definite  idea  or  melody.  It  was  then  that  the  orig- 
inal treatment  of  melodic  development  began,  and  the  va- 
rious devices  for  developing  a  melody,  without  changing 
its  organic  structure,  inaugurated.  This  marked  the  be- 
ginning of  a  school  of  musical  art,  a  school  of  definite,  and 
not  chance  evolution ;  or  in  other  words,  arrangement  and 
development  of  the  earlier  acquired  ideas. 

A  Technical  Principle. — A  little  consideration  will  show 
how  the  principle  of  Imitation  was  developed.  The  first 
step  was  to  imitate  a  melody  at  a  lower  or  higher  pitch  and 
sing  the  two  or  more  versions  simultaneously ;  the  next 
step  was  to  bring  in  the  second  and  other  imitating  voices 
successively,  at  the  same  or  different  pitch;  thus  making 
the  imitation  more  prominent.  So  long  as  composers  con- 
fined their  eflforts  to  using  fixed  melodies,  they  could  not 
go  far.  When  they  began  to  adapt  well-known  melodies 
and  later  to  invent  their  own  it  became  possible  to  make  a 
lengthy  work,  this  leading  to  a  composition  in  which  each 
of  the  accompanying  voices  imitated  the  first;  sometimes 
only  two  voices  used  imitation,  the  other  having  a  some- 
what free  part.  A  next  step  was  to  vary  the  imitation,  by 
changing  the  motion  of  the  imitating  part;  if  the  melody 
moved  up,  the  imitating  part  moved  downward  and  vice 
versa;  sometimes  the  movement  was  reversed,  the  imita- 
tion beginning  with  the  last  note  of  the  phrase  and  pro- 
ceeding to  the  first;  sometimes  it  was  made  in  notes  of 
smaller  value  (diminution),  sometimes  in  larger  (aug- 
mentation). These  and  other  devices  were  experimented 
with  and  worked  out  by  the  Gallo-Belgic  composers.  One 
readily  sees  that  this  is  intellectual  work,  that  it  puts  a 
premium  on  cleverness  and  lays  expression  aside.  Yet  the 
technic  of  an  art  must  first  be  acquired  and  the  composers 


THE   GALLO-BELGIC    SCHOOL. 


Ill 


of  this  period  were  doing  this  in  working-  out  a  system  of 
technic  in  composition  with  Imitation  as  the  foundation. 


Illustration  from  Naumann,  "History  of  Music,"  page 
321,  Vol.  I,  showing  at  i  and  2  the  principal  melody  and  its 
imitation,  and  at  3,  imitation  and  inversion.  Th«  student 
should  examine  the  entire  example  in  Naumann. 

The  Work  of  the  Gallo-Belgic  School.  —  We  note  that 
many  of  the  new  ideas  came  into  being  at  this  time,  all 
of  them,  however,  tending  toward  the  arranging  of  ma- 
terial or  the  preparing  of  it  for  the  emotional  style.  The 
Canon,  and  the  principle  of  Imitation,  developed  a  set  of 
strict  rules  which  tended  to  produce  more  adequate  com- 
mand of  material  and  assisted  in  shaping  the  Fugue ; 
though  we,  in  our  own  day,  regard  these  rules  as  positively 
detrimental  to  the  real  expression  of  emotion,  yet  they  were 
necessary  adjuncts  to  the  real  command  of  technic.  With 
Imitation  came  Counterpoint  of  a  more  highly  developed 
form ;  an  inevitable  step  toward  the  fugal  style  of  the  later 
polyphonic  periods.  And  lastly  came  a  use  of  Folk-music 
melodies  and  the  Leading  Tone,  important  because  they 
foreshadow  the  abandonment  of  the  old  Church  Modes, 
and  the  adoption  of  the  Natural  Scale.  This  marks  the  im- 
portant point  in  the  Gallo-Belgic  school;  for  with  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Natural  Scale  there  came  increasing  ten- 
dency for  emotional  expression,  which  could  never  have 
occurred  had  the  Church  Modes  retained  their  former  posi- 
tion in  music.  The  idea  of  this  preparation  of  material  for 
emotional  development  cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly. 
Upon  the  Gallo-Belgic  school  rested  the  burden  of  pre- 
paring this  material   for  the  later  schools,   so  that  these 


112  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

could  demonstrate  to  the  world  that  while  polyphonic 
music  could  not  be  surpassed  as  a  means  of  expressing 
certain  impersonal,  almost  religious  emotions,  it  could  not 
express  to  the  fullest,  the  intimate,  personal,  emotional  ideas 
of  the  romantic  composers. 

The  Men. — The  men  of  this  period  are  more  important 
than  any  that  have  yet  been  mentioned,  and  for  that  reason 

require  more  detailed  study.    H.  de  Zeelandia  (13 1370), 

a  native  of  Flanders,  was  a  teacher  and  composer,  and 
author  of  a  theoretical  treatise  with  musical  examples,  "De 
Musica" ;  with  him  the  use  of  consecutive  fourths,  fifths 
and  octaves  almost  disappears,  though  it  remained  for  a 
later  composer  to  abolish  these  entirely.  Guillaume  Dufay 
(i355"i435)  w^s  the  one  to  whom  this  reform  must  be 
finally  accredited.  He  used  in  place  of  the  old  church  form 
of  Cantus  Firmus,  the  popular  melodies  of  the  people  with 
their  tendency  toward  the  Natural  Scale  and  the  use  of 
the  Leading  Tone  and  its  decisive  tonality;  it  may  be  said 
that  these  melodies  were  not  used  in  their  entirety,  or  even 
in  their  original  form,  the  rhythm  and  meter  oftentimes 
being  altered  so  that  the  airs  were  hardly  recognizable, 
though  the  essential  parts  were  there.  It  is  Dufay  who  is 
responsible  for  the  first  intelligent  use  of  Imitation  as  a 
basis  for  the  Canon.  Gilles  (iEgidius)  Binchois  (1400- 
1465)  was  a  noted  composer  and,  with  Dufay,  a  joint 
founder  of  the  Gallo-Belgic  school.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  soldier  before  he  entered  the  Church,  and  must  have 
been  of  a  light-hearted  disposition,  as  he  was  called  "the 
father  of  joyousness."  He  was  the  teacher  of  Okeghem, 
Firmin  Caron  and  of  Busnois.  Antoine  de  Busnois  (1440- 
1481)  was  the  last  famous  master  of  this  school  before  it 
was  merged  into  the  school  of  the  Netherlands.  In  his 
works  one  can  note  a  further  progress  in  smoothness  of 
style  and  examples  of  well  managed  imitation.  The  char- 
acter of  the  latter  is  so  scholarly  and  so  clearly  not  a  mat- 
ter of  improvisation  that  we  must  consider  him  a  man  given 
to  study  and  reflection,  just  the  kind  of  character  to  give 
scientific  study  to  the  principle  of  Imitation. 


THE   GALLO-BELGIC    SCHOOL.  II3 

The  Importance  of  this  School.  —  This  school  occui)ie(l 
only  a  short  period  of  time  (1360-1460),  as  compared  to 
some  of  the  other  schools ;  but  in  that  time  much  was  done. 
The  material  taken  from  the  Paris  school  was  great  and 
capable  of  being  developed,  though  it  was  encumbered  by 
unusual  intervals  and  a  prejudice  against  the  more  eupho- 
nious ones,  and  by  a  number  of  obsolete  forms ;  so  obsolete, 
in  fact,  that  with  perhaps  one  exception,  the  Motet,  none 
lasted  until  the  time  of  Bach.  But  the  use  of  Imitation 
and  Measured  Music  was  sufficient  for  the  men  of  the 
Gallo-Belgic  school,  and  with  this  as  a  foundation,  and  the 
constantly-increasing  tendency  to  use  the  Folk-music  and 
the  Natural  Scale,  they  succeeded  in  so  arranging  their 
material  that  the  men  of  the  Netherlands  had  but  to  infuse 
emotion  to  make  it  produce  great  music.  Dufay  and  his 
contemporaries  had  done  this  much :  to  create  organically 
well-ordered  tone  combinations  agreeable  both  in  melodic 
and  harmonic  relations.  Both  artists  and  public  found 
pleasure  in  the  many  transitions,  the  free  use  of  suspen- 
sions, the  altered  tones  and  chords  borrowed  from  other 
scales,  in  the  ensemble  of  these  methods  which  did  not  give 
rise  in  reality  to  chord-relations  as  we  understand  them, 
yet  suggested  something  of  the  kind,  and  particularly  were 
they  pleased  with  the  use  of  the  variety-giving  changing 
notes.  Because  the  Gallo-Belgic  school  did  not  invent  new 
forms,  or  develop  old  forms  to  a  high  degree  of  perfec- 
tion, is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  given  a  high  rank 
among  polyphonic  schools,  for  the  process  of  refining  and 
transition  is  often  more  difficult  than  that  of  inventing. 


References. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians.  Look  up 
biographical  references  of  the  men  mentioned  in  this  lesson, 
also  the  explanation  of  Imitation  and  Canon. 

Naumann. — ^^History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 

Parry. — Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music. 


114  the  history  of  music. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Why  did  Paris  lose  her  position  as  the  centre  of  culture 
in  art? 

What  did  the  Paris  school  contribute? 

In  what  way  was  Imitation  to  be  valuable  to  musical  com 
position  ? 

What  new  methods  of  Imitation  now  appear? 

What  are  the  important  points  in  the  work  of  the  Gallo- 
Belgic  school? 

Who  were  the  prominent  musicians  in  this  school? 

What  advance  is  marked  over  the  work  of  the  Paris 
school  ? 

The  teacher  should  place  on  the  board  an  outline  of  the 
leading  countries  of  Europe,  Italy,  France,  Germany  and 
the  Netherlands,  showing  the  cities  concerned  in  the  de- 
velopment of  music  up  to  the  time  of  Bach  and  Handel. 

The  reader  can  appreciate  that  the  condition  of  France 
and  Paris  was  not  favorable  to  the  growth  of  art  at  this 
period,  which  was  one  of  wars  between  England  and  France 
in  the  territories  of  the  latter.  In  1346,  Edward  III  of 
England  won  the  battle  of  Crecy ;  the  struggle  was  con- 
tinued for  the  next  hundred  years  at  intervals,  when  the 
appearance  of  Joan  of  Arc  (1412-1431)  assisted  the  French. 
Monasteries  were  left  unmolested,  hence  the  monks  near 
the  Belgian  border  were  able  to  work  in  comparative  peace 
and  quiet. 


LESSON  XL 

The  English  School. 

The  English  Polyphonic  School  is  at  once  the  least  im- 
portant and  the  most  pecuHar  of  all  the  schools  of  the  Poly- 
phonic Period.  It  is  usually  ignored  by  the  writers  on  early 
music,  not  because  there  was  no  musical  culture,  but  be- 
cause there  was  not  continuous  and  original  development. 
English  writers  on  this  phase  of  musical  development  are 
too  apt,  through  a  pardonable  pride  of  nationality,  to  ex- 
aggerate the  value  of  British  music,  and  in  consulting  such 
authorities,  one  should  be  careful  to  examine  thoroughly 
all  proofs  of  a  dominant  national  school  and  discard  such 
statements  as  are  not  perfectly  authenticated.  It  is  hardly 
the  Englishman's  fault  that  he  has  had  no  definite  culture 
which  he  may  call  genuinely  English,  for  native  composers 
have  had  more  encouragement  in  England  than  usually  falls 
to  the  lot  of  a  creative  musician.  Indeed,  England  has  al- 
ways been  a  patron  of  the  best  in  music,  native  or  foreign, 
and  no  one  nation  has,  as  a  whole,  been  more  generous  in 
appreciation;  her  treatment  of  Beethoven  on  his  death-bed 
is  a  notable  example  of  disinterested  generosity.  But  in 
real,  original,  creative  art  England  has  had  no  great  past; 
and  especially  is  this  true  of  the  Polyphonic  Period. 

A  Warlike  People. — This  is  almost  entirely  due  to  her 
geographical  position ;  there  are  many  other  reasons  but 
they  are  almost  all  dependent  on  this  one,  and  so  must  be 
treated  in  a  subordinate  sense.  In  her  early  days,  England's 
position  served  as  a  protection  and  kept  intact  her  wealth 
of  native  Folk-music;  but  with  the  advent  of  the  Romans 
and  the  spread  of  the  knowledge  of  her  natural  wealth, 
came  invasion  after  invasion.  Since  the  first  invasion,  Eng- 
land has  never  been  at  peace;    she  has  either  been  busily 

(115) 


Il6  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

engaged  in  repelling  the  enemy  from  her  own  shores,  or 
aiding  in  a  conquest  of  some  less  fortunate  foe.  These 
wars  and  conquests  not  only  served  to  cultivate  a  militant 
and  restless  spirit,  but  also  produced  a  race  of  fighters  from 
natural  inclination.  Look  at  the  warlike  Angles  and  Sax- 
ons, note  the  mixture  of  Romans,  Normans,  Dutch  and 
Huguenots,  all  at  the  zenith  of  their  fighting  powers,  and 
then  cease  to  wonder  that  England's  greatness  has  been  in 
the  power  to  fight,  to  govern,  to  make  conquests,  rather 
than  to  cultivate  art.  England,  when  she  reached  the  stage 
of  conquering  rather  than  defending,  began  to  give,  more 
than  to  acquire,  and  never  reached  the  acquisitive  stage 
until  the  present  time  with  Elgar  and  the  lesser  lights  of 
the  new  school,  unless  we  except  Shakespeare  and  his  con- 
temporaries in  the  realm  of  literature.  England's  cath- 
edrals are  but  the  results  of  European  cathedral  building 
and  the  unity  of  Government  and  Church ;  had  the  Church 
and  State  always  been  separate,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  Eng- 
land would  have  waited  much  longer  for  her  cathedrals. 

The  Kindred  Arts. — Literature  was  the  only  exception; 
and  it  is  not  necessary  to  seek  for  a  further  reason  than  the 
fact  that  Literature,  as  an  art,  always  developed  before 
Music.  Art,  in  painting,  was  in  the  early  days  borrowed 
from  other  countries,  and  not  until  modern  times  did  Eng- 
land acquire  a  national  school  of  Painting;  a  noteworthy 
fact,  for  like  Literature,  such  an  art  almost  always  precedes 
a  national  culture  of  Music.  But  these  examples  of  the 
evolution  of  the  kindred  arts  of  Literature  and  Painting 
are  encouraging  rather  than  discouraging,  for,  having  at- 
tained a  high  standard  in  these,  England  may  now  hope  to 
develop  a  national  culture  of  Music.  In  Music  much  the 
same  conditions  obtained  as  in  Literature  and  Painting. 
With  the  exception  of  one  or  two  isolated  composers,  and 
these  trained  in  foreign  schools,  England  always  borrowed 
her  music;  note  for  example,  Handel,  Buononcini,  Men- 
delssohn, to  quote  just  a  few  noteworthy  foreign  com- 
posers. Each  race  as  it  conquered  England  brought  its  own 
music.    St.  Augustine  sang  a  Gregorian  chant  as  he  entered 


MUSICAL    LIFE    IN    ENGLAND.  II7 

Canterbury ;  the  Normans  and  the  Dutch  had  their  own  mu- 
sic; and  Italian  and  German  music  long  held  the  boards 
in  England.  Thus  little  time  was  spent  in  developing  a 
native  music,  because  the  frequent  wars  and  political  troubles 
directed  the  strength  into  other  channels  than  those  of  art ; 
the  proximity  of  a  higher  culture  in  Europe,  and  the  ten- 
dencies of  England's  foreign  rulers,  enabled  them  to  im- 
port and  subsist  on  foreign  music  when  they  should  have 
been  developing  a  native  style.  And  finally,  the  isolation  of 
England  in  the  early  days,  later  became  an  actual  help  to 
the  acquirement  of  an  alien  style,  because  of  the  absolute 
necessity  for  students  to  live  abroad  to  acquire  musical 
learning. 

Native  Musical  Life. — There  was  a  certain  amount  of 
native  musical  life,  but  this  did  not  tend  to  produce  music 
along  the  conventional  lines.  Of  Folk-music  there  was 
much,  and  the  development,  as  a  general  rule,  was  aided 
rather  than  retarded  by  the  conquests,  though  the  combina- 
tion of  Folk-music  of  different  nationalities  does  not  usually 
tend  to  aid  its  unified  evolution.  The  only  real  example  of 
noteworthy  writing,  in  the  early  polyphonic  school,  is  the 
canon  "Sumer  is  icumen  in,"  dated  1228,  and  attributed  to 
an  early  English  writer.  There  is  no  proof  excepting  the 
fact  that  the  manuscript  is  in  English,  that  the  canon  is  of 
English  origin ;  neither  is  there  proof  to  the  contrary. 
Single  instances,  however,  do  not  prove  the  existence  of  an 
original  school ;  and  especially  is  this  the  case  when  that 
school,  in  its  writings,  far  surpasses  any  other  school  of  that 
period  of  which  we  know.  In  spite  of  the  fact  of  the  Eng- 
lish text,  and  that  this  canon  may  be  but  one  of  many  sur- 
viving the  destruction  of  the  English  monasteries,  impartial 
historians  believe  most  strongly  that  the  canon  is  of  French 
origin,  reset  to  English  words  and  carried  to  England  by  a 
student  of  the  Paris  school.  The  Paris  school  was  at  its 
height  at  this  time,  and  was  the  only  school  of  such  writing 
in  the  world ;  and  while  we  have  no  other  example  of  that 
school  equal  to  this  canon,  yet  it  is  easier  to  believe  it  to  be 
French  than  English,  for  England  had  no  such  school  at  all. 


ii8 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


She  had  musicians  (like  Odington),  but  they  were  all  pupils 
of  the  Paris  school ;  and  even  had  this  work  been  pro- 
duced in  England,  it  would  be  safer  to  credit  it  to  the  Paris 
school,  for  the  man  who  wrote  it  would,  almost  of  neces- 
sity, have  studied  there.  The  only  other  way  of  accoimting 
for  it  is  to  presume  the  date  to  be  too  early. 

It  is  but  fair  to  say  that  while  this  canon  may  owe  its 
origin  to  the  principles  of  the  Gallo-Belgic  school,  it  stands 
alone  as  an  article  of  historical  interest  to  the  musician. 
Nowhere  on  the  Continent  has  a  work  of  equal  importance 
of  so  early  a  date  been  brought  to  view.  ]\Ir.  Wm.  Chap- 
pell,  the  English  antiquarian,  brought  to  light  several  other 
productions  of  early  English  composers,  including  a  hymn 
in  English,  scored  for  two  voices,  and  another  in  Latin,  for 
three  voices.  The  manuscript  has  been  definitely  attributed 
to  the  middle  of  the  13th  century.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  when  so  many  monasteries,  with  their  treasures  of 
learning,  were  suppressed  and  their  inmates  scattered,  in 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII,  owing  to  the  national  change  from 
the  Romish  faith,  many  valuable  manuscripts  that  would 
today  have  the  utmost  interest  to  the  musical  historian  were 
destroyed. 


Old  English  Canon  "Sumeb  Is  Icumen  In." 

J  /.    I  .  n 


^ 


m 


i 


:»zz 


^^ 


^ 


te 


Ground' 
Bass 


S§ 


SUMER   IS   ICUMEN    IN. 


119 


IV 


;rcE: 


in 


i^E^ 


IV 


r3^ 


m 


ra 


in 


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^^ 


5^ 


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^ 


I20  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

Whether  this  is  purely  EngHsh  or  not  matters  little,  for  it 
is  a  fine  specimen  and  exemplifies  Walter  Odington's  rule  for 
the  construction  of  a  Roundel,  cited  in  a  former  lesson. 
This  is  more  than  a  mere  roundel,  having  not  only  a  little 
Inversion  and  much  Imitation,  managed  in  a  most  ingenious 
manner,  but  also  the  whole  canon  is  founded  on  a  ground 
bass  in  two  parts,  themselves  in  canonic  form.  This  bass 
consists  of  the  regulation  metrical  form  as  seen  at  A  and  the 
following  two  measures,  has  one  measure  forming  a  con- 
necting passage,  thus  bringing  in  the  portion  marked  B 
which  is  the  same  as  A  only  a  fifth  higher ;  the  whole  forms 
a  remarkable  evidence  of  an  early  conception  of  the  rela- 
tion of  the  Tonic  and  Dominant,  hardly  to  be  believed.  This 
metrical  form  is  introduced,  slightly  changed  and  inverted, 
in  the  upper  voices  at  A  and  B.  The  first  voice  states  in 
all  five  melodies  and  the  other  voices  follow  at  intervals  of 
4,  8,  and  12  measures;  in  ending  voice  number  two  omits 
part  of  theme  V,  voice  number  three  all  of  it  and  voice 
number  four  all  of  V  and  the  imitation  of  the  metrical  bass. 

Outside  this  one  example,  England  produced  little  but 
moderately  good  polyphonic  music  in  the  form  of  motets 
and  madrigals,  and  in  the  time  of  Gibbons  and  Purcell, 
sonatas  and  operas.  There  were  also  anthems,  the  old  plain 
chant  and  much  Folk-music,  but  nothing  that  can  be  con- 
sidered as  important.  The  Folk-music  is  all  that  can  claim 
originality,  and  that  ranks  favorably  with  the  best  examples 
of  other  nations  and  is,  indeed,  in  advance  of  that  of  other 
nations  considered  more  musical. 

The  Men  of  the  Time. — While  English  music  was  not,  at 
this  period,  very  important,  there  were  many  composers 
whose  names  at  least  should  be  familiar.  After  the  passing 
of  the  bards  and  minstrels,  the  monks  controlled  the  com- 
posing of  music  until  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries, 
when  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  schoolmen  of  Cam- 
bridge and  Oxford,  where  it  remains  today,  though  there 
are,  at  present,  signs  of  an  important  awakening,  presaging 
the  passing  of  musical  power  from  the  hands  of  the  con- 
servative doctors  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  to  the  present 


ENGLISH    COMPOSERS   OF   THIS    PERIOD.  121 

generation  of  younger  and  more  talented  writers.  Walter 
Odington  (1180-1250)  was  a  pupil  of  the  Paris  school  and 
a  theorist  of  note,  writing  on  the  Mensural  System  as  ex- 
ploited in  the  French  school.  Robert  DeHandlo  (1326) 
was  another  theoretician  who  wrote  on  the  same  subject. 
John  Dunstable  (1400-1458)  was  contemporaneous  with  the 
men  of  the  Gallo-Belgic  school  and  did  the  same  for  Eng- 
lish music  in  reforming  it  as  the  latter  did  for  the  foreign 
school.  In  recent  years  examples  of  his  writings  have  been 
unearthed  in  the  cathedral  libraries  of  Trent  and  Bologna, 
as  well  as  elsewhere,  making  it  clear  that  in  his  lifetime  he 
was  regarded  as  one  of  the  foremost  composers  of  Europe. 
The  theorist,  Tinctoris,  of  the  Netherlands  school,  consid- 
ered in  the  next  lesson,  speaks  of  the  "source  and  origin  of 
the  new  art  [Counterpoint]  being  among  the  English,  the 
foremost  of  whom  is  John  Dunstable."  A  contemporary 
who  was  also  well-known  in  Italy  was  John  Hothby,  who 
wrote  several  treatises  on  music.  There  were  other  musi- 
cians of  prominence  prior  to  the  Reformation  under  Henry 
VIII,  but  we  know  little  about  them  save  their  names.  John 
Merbecke  (1515-1585)  adapted  the  Gregorian  chant  to  the 
English  prayer  book,  which  was  published  in  1550.  Chris- 
topher Tye  (1515-1580)  was  a  teacher  and  wrote  much 
church  music;  so  also  was  Thomas  Tallis  (i 515-1585), 
one  of  the  most  learned  composers  of  his  time,  who  set  the 
choral  portions  in  the  service  to  music.  He  is  noted  for 
a  celebrated  canon  in  forty  parts  and  for  a  hymn-tune,  known 
as  "Tallis"  or  "Evening  Hymn,"  which  contains  a  canon  be- 
tween the  soprano  and  tenor  parts.  William  Byrd  (1538- 
1623)  was  another  noted  composer  of  this  school,  being 
also  famous  as  a  writer  of  instrumental  music.  Queen 
Elizabeth  granted  to  Tallis  and  Byrd  the  exclusive  right  to 
print  music  and  to  rule  music  paper.  Orlando  Gibbons 
(1583-1625)  wrote  motets  and  madrigals  and  is  known  as 
a  writer  of  both  polyphonic  and  monophonic  music.  Henry 
Pnrcell  (1658-1695)  was  the  greatest  composer  of  the  Eng- 
lish Polyphonic  school,  writing  operas  in  the  English  and 
Italian  style,  songs,  sonatas,  motets  and  anthems.    He  seems 


122  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

to  have  been  in  many  respects  a  very  able  writer  and  mu- 
sician, but  died  too  young  to  make  any  decided  impression 
on  his  times. 

Summary. — From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  while  England 
had  a  musical  people  composed  of  a  mixture  of  the  most 
musical  peoples  of  Europe,  yet  because  of  geographical  posi- 
tion, political  disturbances,  religious  troubles  and  wars, 
she  was  never  able  to  produce  a  great  and  commanding 
school.  She  did  not  lack  force,  but  it  was  directed  into 
other,  and  for  the  time  being,  more  important  channels. 
Almost  everything  of  an  artistic  nature  was  borrowed,  or 
was  a  transplanted  culture ;  and  while  the  art  of  music 
never  lacked  men  to  cultivate  it,  yet  these  men  were  not 
of  the  calibre  of  the  men  employed  in  the  other  works  of 
the  nation,  so  that  so  far  as  the  Polyphonic  period  is  con- 
cerned, England  is  not  important,  and  but  for  such  men  as 
Dunstable  and  Purcell  and  the  canon  "Sumer  Is  Icumen 
In,"  England  might  be  completely  ignored  in  respect  to  her 
influence  on  polyphonic  development. 

References. 

Crowest. — The  Story  of  British  Music.    The  entire  book. 

Davey. — History  of  English  Music,  Chapters  I  to  V  in- 
clusive. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians.  Article  on 
Schools  of  Composition,  relating  to  England. 

Naumann. — History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 

Oxford  History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 

Questions. 

Why  did  Music  have  so  uncertain  a  growth  in  England  ? 

What  is  the  earliest  English  composition  of  value? 

What  were  the  causes  for  the  loss  of  early  English  music 
manuscripts  ? 

What  principles  are  shown  in  this  old  Canon  ? 

Who  were  the  leading  composers  in  England  in  the  period 
considered  in  this  lesson? 


LESSON  XII. 

^      The  School  of  the  Netherlands. 

The  Dominance  of  the  Netherlands. — The  most  important 
asset  of  a  nation  is  its  commercial  activity,  for  upon  that 
depends  its  art  life.  The  fine  arts  are  to  an  extent  hix- 
uries,  and  until  a  nation  has,  by  commercial  activity,  ac- 
quired wealth,  they  cannot  be  earnestly  cultivated,  for  all 
arts  require  from  the  artist  his  entire  time  and  life,  and  until 
there  is  money  and  inclination  enough  among  the  people 
to  support  an  artist  in  his  commercially  non-productive 
state,  there  can  be  no  art;  hence  we  see  a  shifting  of  art 
centres  in  the  Middle  Ages,  just  as  the  commercial  centres 
changed. 

The  Netherlands  were  preeminently  fitted  to  carry  on 
great  commercial  pursuits  by  virtue  of  their  geographical 
situation  and  long  combat  and  association  with  the  sea. 
Possessing  the  natural  outlet  to  a  great  part  of  Europe,  it 
was  reasonable  that  the  Netherlands  should  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  that  her  fleets  should 
trade  on  every  sea  and  her  coffers  be  enriched  by  barter  in 
the  produce  of  every  clime.  It  was  a  golden  age  for  the 
Lowlands,  from  1350  to  1625,  for  their  trade  made  them 
one  of  the  wealthiest  and  most  important  nations  in  the 
world.  Their  situation  between  the  trading  countries  of 
the  South  and  the  North  made  them,  as  it  were,  the  com- 
mercial exchange  of  Europe.  The  consequent  wealth  could 
not  lie  dormant,  therefore  much  of  it  was  used  in  building 
notable  architectural  structures,  encouraging  Painting,  and 
developing  the  then  infant  art  of  Music.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  mention  the  famous  structures  which  were  the  result  of 
this  period,  and  it  is  but  necessary  to  name  Hubert  Van 
Eyck,  Rubens,  Van  Dyck,  to  understand  the  prominence 

(123) 


124  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

^ivcn  to  the  art  of  Painting  by  tlic  acquisiti<^n  of  this  enor- 
mous wealth.  And  it  is  lar<;ely  due  to  this  CDniiuercial  ac- 
tivity that  the  school  of  the  Netherlands  attained  such  an 
undying  fame. 

One  other  influence,  and  that  dependent  on  commercial 
activity,  produced  great  results.  Art  is  not  sectional,  it  is 
universal ;  and  great  art  works  are  produced  not  by  local 
influences  but  by  association,  or  contact,  with  the  world. 
For  this  reason,  the  intercourse  with  the  entire  world  gen- 
erated by  the  great  commercial  activity  of  the  times  pro- 
duced the  first  great  world  School  of  Music.  Intercourse 
developed  emotion  and  produced  broader  and  less  localized 
view-points  of  life:  it  brought  into  close  association  the 
art  life  of  different  nations  and  infused  a  unity  of  emotion 
wherever  it  occurred.  In  short,  Music,  by  being  brought 
into  contact  with  the  ideas  of  the  world  instead  of  a  local 
association,  took  on  a  universal  form  and  feeling  never  be- 
fore felt  and  never  to  be  relinquished.  For  this  reason, 
Music  unconsciously  advanced  from  Paris  to  the  Nether- 
lands, toward  the  greater  sphere  of  influence,  stopping  for 
only  a  short  period  with  the  Gallo-Belgic  school,  where 
it  was  prepared  technically  for  its  new  growth  as  a  world 
form. 

The  Gallo-Belgic  and  the  Netherlands  Schools  Compared. — 
The  Gallo-Belgic  school,  in  the  control  of  churchmen,  was 
isolated  from  any  influence  tending  to  develop  a  broad  emo- 
tional scheme.  And  it  is  doubtful  wdiether  it  could  have 
caused  any  change  in  musical  evolution,  for  the  technical 
forms  were  not  ready.  And  so  the  Gallo-Belgic  school,  in 
its  retirement  from  the  great  world  activities,  confined  it- 
self to  attaining  the  power  to  manipulate  notes,  for  the  sake 
of  mere  technical  effects,  leaving  emotional  development 
entirely  out  of  consideration.  With  such  a  school,  while 
its  work  was  important,  no  real  art  feeling  could  be  gained ; 
and  so  the  school  of  the  Netherlands  marks  the  departure 
into  a  new  romantic  school  governed,  to  a  great  extent,  by 
the  emotional.  The  Netherlands,  because  of  their  more 
comprehensive  view  of  the  musical  activities  of  the  past 


THE   SCHOOL   OF   THE    NETHERLANDS.  I25 

and  tlieir  constant  intercourse,  commercially  and  artisti- 
cally, with  all  nations,  acquired  a  more  human  sense  of  the 
beauty  of  music,  and  ceased  to  manipulate  musical  materia] 
for  techni-cal  ends,  producing  instead  of  cold,  lifeless  forms, 
music  pulsing  with  vigor,  life  and  emotion.  With  this 
primary  change  of  view-point  came  a  direct  growth  of 
form,  the  Canon  being  perfected  and  immediately  giving 
birth  to  the  Fugue ;  the  Madrigal  and  Canzona  and  many 
other  lesser  forms  sprang  into  being,  all  capable  of  emo- 
tional development,  and  almost  immediately  producing  great 
results.  For  the  first  time  music  was  free  from  consecutive 
fourths,  fifths  and  octaves  because  composers  created  from 
the  standpoint  of  emotional  beauty  and  not  that  of  technical 
utility.  The  result  was  a  musical  technic  capable  of  develop- 
ment, and  refined  beyond  need  of  further  reformation. 

The  Organ  and  its  Influence. — The  organ  was  the  third 
great  reformative  power  in  this  epoch.  All  music  was 
vocal  and  no  other  conception  could  be  had,  for  effective 
instruments  and  instrumental  music  were  not  yet  in  ex- 
istence. The  organ,  because  its  tones  were  suited  to  ac- 
companying the  human  voice  and  because  its  tone  color 
was  closely  identical  with  that  of  the  voice,  was  readily 
adapted  to  the  vocal  forms  then  in  use.  This  gave  a  greater 
resource,  for  what  was  often  technically  impossible  with 
the  human  voice  became  easy  with  the  organ.  The  mechan- 
ical improvement  of  this  instrument  immediately  gave 
greater  freedom  and  range  of  technic,  and  it  proved  so  well 
suited  to  polyphonic  development  that  it  aided  the  evolu- 
tion more  than  any  other  one  agency.  The  use  of  the  organ 
must  not  be  accounted  as  the  beginning  of  instrumental 
music,  for  the  organ  used  only  adapted  voice-forms,  such 
as  the  Canon,  Fugue,  Madrigal,  etc. ;  for  this  reason  it  is 
to  be  doubted  if  it  aided  in  emotional  development  except 
by  making  technical  resources  much  less  restricted.  In  this 
sense,  then,  the  technic  of  this  school  was  freed  from  most 
of  its  former  rules,  and  Music,  previously  cramped  by  nar- 
row vocal  restrictions,  passed  into  the  comparative  freedom 
of  the  polyphonic  style  of  the  organ. 


126 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 


The  Men  of  this  School  are  hardly  to  be  separated  from 
the  men  of  the  Gallo-Belgic  school.  The  work  passes  from 
one  school  to  the  next  with  little  or  no  perceptible  pause, 
and  the  first  men  of  the  later  school  are 'pupils  or  disciples 
of  the  last  men  of  the  Gallo-Belgic  period.  Another  note- 
worthy fact  is,  that  so  great  was  the  musical  growth,  of  this 
school  and  the  skill  and  learning  of  its  followers  that  the 
composers  of  the  Netherlands  expatriated  themselves  and 
settled  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  founding  famous  schools  in 
Paris,  Aladrid,  Naples,  \'enice,  ^Munich  and  Rome ;  the 
celebrated  Italian  school  is  really  an  offshoot  of  that  of  the 
Netherlands.  It  is  this  overflow  which  marks  this  school 
as  the  greatest  of  the  early  polyphonic  schools  and  shows 
why  and  how  it  acquired  its  emotional  supremacy.  Jean 
de  Okeghem  (1430-1512),  pupil  of  Binchois,  was  the  first 
prominent  worker.  It  is  difficult  to  class  him  as  a  com- 
poser of  the  Belgian  or  Netherlands  school,  for  he  has  the 
earmarks  of  both.  He  lived  during  the  supremacy  of  the 
Netherlands,  but  worked  with  the  material  of  the  Belgians. 
He  developed  the  Canon  to  its  highest  technical  point  and 
took  the  first  step  toward  the  originating  of  the  Fugue.  To 
him  is  due  the  credit  of  introducing  the  use  of  retrograde, 
inverted,  diminished  and  augmented  imitation  in  the  Canon. 
Much  of  his  work  was  done  in  France.  The  tendency  of 
his  teaching  was  toward  artificiality,  as  he  delighted  in 
puzzle  canons  and  other  exhibitions  of  ingenuity. 

Antonins  Brumel  (1460-1520),  a  pupil  of  Okeghem,  is 
noteworthy  because  of  a  foreshadowing  of  the  use  of  chords 
in  real  harmonic  progressions. 


Part  of  a  motet  by  Brumel,  Naumann,  History  of  Music, 
Vol,  page  333,  used  to  illustrate  the  idea  of  the  harmonic 
feeling  of  some  of  the  polyphonic  writers.  The  rest  of  the 
composition  is  strictly  in  the  polyphonic  style. 


THE   SCHOOL   OF   THE    NETHERLANDS. 


127 


Jakob  Hobreclit  (1430-1506)  was  the  first  real  Dutch 
composer,  and  is  noted,  in  his  use  of  technical  forms,  for 
their  emotional  beauty   rather  than  mechanical  excellence. 


Part  of  a  composition  by  Hobrecht,  cited  by  Naumann, 
"History  of  Music,"  Vol.  I,  page  331.  Excerpt  shows  how 
strictly  even  this  fragment  is  written  and  yet  how  musical 
it  is.  At  I  is  shown  a  figure  in  the  bass  repeated  in  imitation 
a  step  higher  at  2.  At  A  is  shown  a  melody  imitated  at  B 
in  augmentation  and  with  altered  rhythm.  The  student 
should  refer  to  Naumann. 

This  is  truly  a  remarkable  work  for  that  period,  and 
shows  that  even  then  composers  were  beginning  to  observe 
the  emotional  power  of  chord  relationship. 

Johann  Tinctor  (1446-1511),  a  disciple  of  Okeghem, 
worked  in  Rome  and  Naples,  and  will  be  considered  with 
rhe  Italian  school.  Josquin  de  Pres  (1450-1521),  also  a 
disciple  of  Okeghem,  worked  in  Rome  and  Paris,  and  must 
also  be  considered  as  one  of  the  Italian  school.  It  may  be 
here  mentioned  that  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  use  music  as 


128  THK    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

a  veliicic  for  expressing  liinnan  ciiuitions  rather  than  tcch-^ 
nical  power.  He  snninied  up  in  himself  all  the  harmonic 
science  of  the  15th  century.  He  was  renowned  through  all 
Europe  as  a  comjjoser,  and  if  his  music  seems  to  us  some- 
what dry  and  pedantic  there  is  abundant  testimony  to  the 
deep  impression  it  made  upon  his  contemporaries,  which  is 
a  test  of  its  power  to  excite  and  to  express  emotion.  Com- 
pared with  the  works  of  his  predecessors  and  even  the  ma- 
jority of  his  contemporaries,  Josquin's  writings  show  free- 
dom from  the  bonds  of  the  old  scholasticism,  greater  sim- 
plicity and  esthetic  beauty.  Among  those  of  his  works  that 
have  come  to  us  is  a  Miserere  for  five  voices,  and  an  Ave 
Maria  that  cannot  be  considered  other  than  lovely  music. 
Nicholas  Gombert  (1495-1570),  a  pupil  of  Josquin  de  Pres, 
had  a  natural,  tuneful  and  flowing  style  similar  to  that  after- 
wards shown  by  Palestrina.  His  work  was  done  in  Madrid, 
and  to  him  Spain  and  Portugal  owe  all  they  have  of  the  an- 
cient polyphonic  music.  Jacob  Arkadelt  (1492-1570)  and 
Claude  Goudimel  (15 10- 1572)  worked  in  Rome,  Adrian  Wil- 
laert  (1480-1562)  and  Cipriano  de  Eore  (1516-1565)  in  Ven- 
ice, and  will  be  considered  with  the  Italian  school.  Orlando 
di  Lasso  (1520-1594)  worked  some  in  Italy,  but  mostly  in 
Munich,  where  his  influence  was  great.  His  style  was 
broad,  flowing  and  especially  emotional,  and  as  a  writer  ot 
the  Netherlands  school  his  name  stands  as  one  of  the  very 
highest.  J.  P.  Sweelinck  (1562-1621)  is  the  last,  and  while 
of  the  Netherlands,  studied  in  Venice,  but  did  his  work  at 
home.  He  was  a  great  organist  and  the  last  great  master 
of  the  school,  and  had  the  honor  of  being  the  link  between 
it  and  the  German  school,  serving  as  an  example  for  Sebas- 
tian Bach.  His  works  have  recently  been  published  in  Ger- 
many. Of  all  these  men  it  may  be  said  that  they  developed 
music  steadily  toward  the  goal  of  emotional  freedom. 

Summary. — The  great  work  of  this  school  was  to  make 
technic  subservient  to  thought.  In  all  preceding  schools, 
the  material  and  the  forms  were  so  new  and  the  methods  of 
handling  them  so  crude,  that  technic  always  dominated 
thought.     And  it  was  naturally  so,  for  expression  cannot 


THE    SCHOOL   OF    THE    NETHERLANDS.  I29 

conic  until  the  power  to  master  the  material  has  hccn  at- 
tained ;  it  was  by  this  power  that  the  Netherlands  devel- 
oped emotional  music.  But  the  student  invariably  objects 
and  says  he  does  not  see  any  emotion  in  the  polyphonic 
music  of  this  period !  The  student  must  place  himself  in 
the  position  of  these  old  masters,  supported  by  the  church 
and  constantly  imbibing  the  religious  atmosphere  of  the  in- 
stitution they  served,  until  they  unconsciously  expressed, 
in  their  music,  the  grandeur  and  power  of  their  religion 
rather  than  the  intimate  personal  feeling  of  modern  musi- 
cians ;  and  then  the  student  will  understand  what  is  meant 
by  polyphonic  emotion.  We  must  always  remember  that 
polyphonic  emotion  is  not  monophonic  emotion,  and  that  its 
tremendous  technic  and  complexity  of  device  were  but  the 
means  of  expressing  its  peculiar  form  of  emotion,  which 
to  understand,  one  must  study  diligently,  and  then  approach 
with  a  reverent  feeling. 

References. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  article  on 
Schools  of  Composition,  relating  to  the  Netherlands. 

Naumann. — History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 

Smith. — Music ;    How  it  Came  to  be  What  it  Is. 

Parrv. — Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,  Chapters  IV  and 
V. 

Langhans. — History  of  Music. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Why  did  the  Netherlands  become  the  musical  centre? 

How  did  geographical  situation  favor  the  Netherlands  in 
the  struggle  for  commercial   supremacy? 

What  circumstances  gave  their  art  a  general  rather  than 
sectional  character? 

Compare  the  Gallo-Belgic  and  the  Netherlands  schools. 

How  did  the  Organ  aid  in  development? 

Who  are  the  most  famous  members  of  this  school  of  com- 
position ? 

What  are  the  special  characteristics  of  each? 


130  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSia 

What  is  a  Miserere? 

What  is  an  Ave  Maria? 

What  was  the  Hanseatic  League? 

What  was  the  contribution  of  the  Netherlands  school? 

Consult  a  general  history  for  the  events  which  made  the 
Netherlands  so  important  at  this  time. 

In  selecting  a  historical  epoch  to  accompany  the  period 
of  the  Netherlands  school  and  its  successor,  the  Italian 
school,  the  central  figure  that  will  be  most  familiar  is 
Christopher  Columbus,  whose  life  and  work  covered  the 
early  period,  the  close  of  the  old  polyphonic  school  dating 
with  Palestrina's  death  in  1594,  100  years  after  the  dis- 
covery of  America.  This  hundred  years  represents  the 
flowering  time  of  polyphony  as  an  art. 


LESSON  XIII. 

The  Italian  School. 

Italy  the  New  Centre. — Music  developed  in  the  Nether- 
lands because  of  commercial  supremacy  and  the  consequent 
world  association.  We  shall  now  see  it  pass  to  Italy,  but 
because  of  a  very  different  reason.  From  the  earliest  Chris- 
tian days  Italy  was  the  centre  of  religious  influence:  it  is 
only  necessary  to  examine  history  to  observe  the  ramifica- 
tions of  that  power  in  England,  France,  Germany,  the  Neth- 
erlands and  other  countries.  This  influence,  often  more 
political  than  religious  in  character,  gave  to  the  Italian 
Church  (then  the  Italian  State),  a  predominance  of  author- 
ity, which  was  a  great  power  in  religious  and  secular 
thought.  This  influence  spread  to  music  for  various  rea- 
sons. We  must  remember  that  the  school  at  Paris  was 
controlled  by  the  Church,  that  the  Gallo-Belgic  school  owed 
its  foundation  to  the  same  cause,  and  that  the  men  of  all 
three  schools  were  employed  as  organists  by  the  Church. 
It  is  true  that  in  Italy  the  Church  had  not  the  broadening 
influence  of  commercial  intercourse,  but  was  more  than 
compensated  for  that  lack  by  what  we  may  call  artistic 
intercourse.  The  Church  was  the  one  stable  institution  in 
these  times  of  war  in  which  painters  could  find  a  refuge  for 
their  works,  and  from  which  patronage  flowed  in  a  steady 
stream  to  the  ever-needy  artists.  Thus  was  caused  and 
maintained  the  artistic  atmosphere  necessary  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  Music.  As  an  art,  the  Church  was  the  only  sup- 
port of  artistic  music.  When  Music  originated  it  needed 
an  institution  to  protect  and  foster  it  and  safeguard  its 
growth,  and  this  it  found  in  the  Church ;  it  repaid  this  pro- 
tection by  evolving  a  style  eminently  suited  to  the  needs  of 
the  Church,  but  absolutely  useless   for  the  expression  of 

(131) 


132  •  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

secular  and  natural  emotion.  To  this  patronage  of  its  pecul- 
iar art  is  due  the  importation  into  Italy  of  the  best  in  music 
wherever  found,  to  aid  in  these  services.  And  so  vvc  find 
singers  from  the  Netherlands  engaged  for  the  Church  in 
Italy.  This,  and  the  fame  of  Italy  as  the  home  of  superior 
singers,  undoubtedly  led  the  majority  of  those  numerous 
Netherlandish  masters  to  seek  their  homes  abroad,  and 
preferably  in  Italy.  The  fact  that  all  music  was  vocal  in 
style  and  that  the  Church  was  the  only  institution  capable 
of  supporting  such  a  style,  cannot  be  too  strongly  stated; 
for  upon  that  depended  not  only  the  evolution  of  Music, 
but  also  the  very  life  of  the  Polyphonic  emotional  style. 

Emotion  in  Polyphony. — This  style  is  worthy  of  examina- 
tion. As  a  preface  we  must  remember  that  we  have  to  deal 
with  the  Church  and  human  voices  only,  for  instruments 
had  not  been  perfected  sufficiently  for  church  use,  except- 
ing the  organ,  and  that  we  must  consider  a  voice  because  of 
its  peculiar  tonal  qualities  and  the  adaptation  of  vocal  forms 
and  styles  to  its  use.  This  vocal  style  had  developed  grad- 
ually, through  a  long  course  of  reforms,  until  it  reached  its 
perfection  in  the  later  polyphonic  schools,  and  expressed  the 
peculiar  emotion  suited  for  the  services.  Lack  of  rhythm 
was  a  pointed  characteristic ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  it  had 
been  discarded  as  profane,  and  in  the  next  place,  a  long 
course  of  treatment  in  the  management  of  voices  to  avoid 
anything  like  concerted  and  accentuated  dissci.nces  had 
produced  a  peculiar  flowing  movement  which,  however 
smooth  it  might  be,  certainly  possessed  no  rhythmic  force. 
Then,  too,  the  old  scale  forms  caused  anything  written  in 
their  idioms  to  sound  grave,  severe  and  dignified,  if  not 
harsh.  The  transition  to  the  modern  major  and  minor  in 
the  Monophonic  school  of  1600  and  the  immediate  cultiva- 
tion of  music  by  the  people  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of 
the  musical  qualities  of  the  two  modes.  All  of  these  causes 
tended  to  produce  a  suitable  form  of  music  and  an  emo- 
tional expression  peculiarly  suited  to  the  Roman  services. 
In  this  style  there  was  little  storm  and  stress,  little  of  the 
personal  appeal  to  God;    on  the  other  hand,  it  was  grave, 


EMOTION    IN    POLYPHONY.  133 

severe  and  immovable,  or  in  a  better  sense,  impersonal  in 
its  expression.  Music  of  the  polyphonic  period,  even  until 
the  time  of  Sebastian  I'ach,  in  whose  works  it  is  well  ex- 
om])lified,  does  not  show  us  the  appeal  to  God  from  the 
heart  of  the  active  Christian  worker,  but  rather  the  a])peal 
to  a  vast  impersonal  and  majestic  God  far  removed  from  the 
needs  and  supplications  of  the  mere  individual.     It  was  this 


Oklando  di  Lasso. 

kind  of  emotion  that  developed  in  the  Italian  Polyphonic 
schools.  The  human  and  more  expressive  emotion  of  the 
schools  of  the  Netherlands  was  transmitted,  in  the  schools 
of  the  Italian,  into  the  high,  contemplative  moods  of  re- 
ligious expression ;  and  it  was  well  that  it  should  be  so, 
for  polyphonic  music  could  never  have  expressed  the  emo- 
tion of  a  Beethoven ;  and  it  was  not  only  best  that  it  should 
express  its  own  peculiar  style  of  emotion,  but  inevitable  that 
it  should  do  so. 


134  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Schools  Outside  Italy. — Tlic  overflow  from  the  Nether- 
lands concentrated  its  efforts  on  certain  j^oints  or  school 
centres.  In  Italy,  these  were  Naples,  X'enice  and  Rome. 
There  were  others  thronghout  Euro])e,  such  as  Madrid, 
Paris  and  Munich,  which  we  must  consider  first  because  of 
their  relation  to  Italy.  Nicholas  Gombert  (1495-1570)  in- 
fluenced the  polyphonic  development  in  Madrid,  but  so  iso- 
lated was  the  work  that  nothing  great  resulted.  Okeghem 
(1430-1512)  worked  longer  in  Paris  than  other  masters, 
though  several  lived  there  for  short  intervals,  such  as  Ark- 
adelt  and  Goudimel.  Orlando  di  Lasso  (1520-1594)  did  al- 
most all  his  work  in  Munich  and  established  the  most  impor- 
tant school  outside  of  Italy.  He  was  a  most  prolific  writer 
and  can  be  compared  in  ability  and  style  to  Palestrina.  His 
style  wa3  broad  and  bold  and  contained  much  of  that  serious 
and  earr.est  character  now  attributed  to  his  Teutonic  asso- 
ciations. He  wrote  in  all  known  forms  and  was  well  nigh 
universal  in  his  knowledge  of  form,  technic  and  expression. 
His  facility  in  the  art  of  writing  was  very  great  and  was 
fully  equalled  by  his  love  for  work.  Although  his  work 
has  somewhat  less  perfection  than  that  of  his  great  contem- 
porary, Palestrina,  it  has  astonishing  powder  of  expression. 
It  shows  the  force  of  his  genius  that  he  was  able  to  make 
his  works  in  the  strict  contrapuntal  forms  full  of  real  feel- 
ing. He  was  a  man  of  interesting  personal  character.  The 
most  famous  of  his  works  is  his  setting  of  seven  "Peniten- 
tial Psalms,"  containing  a  number  of  most  curious  effects 
for  unaccompanied  voices,  with  much  that  is  singularly 
characteristic  and  beautiful,  and  showing  well  the  character 
of  his  genius. 

We  give  part  of  a  composition  by  di  Lasso  showing  his 
broad  style  and  the  increasing  use  of  what  sounds  sus- 
piciously like  our  modern  chord  progressions.  The  lack  of 
rhythmic  eflfect  and  the  holding  over  of  notes  past  the  ac- 
cented beat  is  shown  in  this  exercise.  The  whole  example, 
with  words,  may  be  found  in  Naumann,  History  of  Music, 
Vol.  I,  page  387. 


THE    ITALIAN    SCHOOL. 


135 


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The  Italian  School. — But  it  is  with  the  Italian  schools 
that  we  are  most  concerned.  The  school  at  Naples  had  as 
its  principal  master  Johannes  Tinctoris  (i 446-151 1)  a  Flem- 
ing by  birth,  a  doctor  of  laws  and  a  mathematician,  one  of 
those  peculiar  combinations  seldom  noticed  after  the  Paris 
school,  and  almost  sure  to  mark  the  theoretician.  His 
work  was  principally  theoretical  and  his  treatises  are  of 
great  value.  Adrian  Willaert  (1480-1562),  born  at  Bruges, 
was  a  pupil  of  Jean  Mouton,  at  Paris.  After  visiting  Rome 
and  Ferrara,  he  settled  in  Venice  and,  as  organist  of  St. 
Mark's,  founded  an  important  school.  He  introduced  the 
use  of  large  double  choruses  which  caused  him  to  write 
harmonically  rather  than  polyphonically.  This  influence 
caused  him  to  relegate  the  imitative  polyphonic  part  writing 
to  smaller  forms  (motets,  etc.)  and  to  write  plain  chord 
progressions  in  his  larger  works ;  and  before  long  he  began 


136  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

to  observe  and  to  use  tlic  relationship  between  the  Tonic 
and  the  Dominant.  This  tendency  and  the  invention  of  the 
Madrigal  furnished  the  basis  for  a  new  instrumental  school 
at  a  later  date.  His  best-known  pupil,  Cipriano  di  Rore 
(1516-1565),  was  short-lived,  and  worked  in  both  \'enice 
and  Parma.  He  made  some  investigation  into  the  use  oi 
chromatics,  thus  showing  the  growing  tendency  to  abandon 
the  Church  modes  for  the  natural  scales.  I'ollowing  these 
Dutch  masters  came  the  two  Gabrieli's,  who  were  native 
Italians.  Andrea  Gabrieli  (1510-1586)  was  a  great  organist 
and  wrote  in  the  style  of  Wlllaert,  his  famous  master.  Gio- 
vanni Gabrieli  (1557-1613)  was  a  pupil  of  his  uncle  Andrea, 
and  carried  the  latter's  methods  further  toward  perfection. 
He  also  v^rote  for  instruments  in  conjunction  with  voices, 
abandoning  to  a  certain  extent  the  a  capella  style,  and  open- 
ing that  epoch  of  instrumental  music  foreshadowed  by  Wil- 
laert  in  his  madrigals.  Rome  was  the  centre  of  church 
government,  of  church  art  and  also  of  church  music,  and 
as  such,  had  the  largest  and  greatest  of  Italian  music 
schools.  Jacob  Arkadelt  (1492-1570),  a  Netherlander, 
lived  nineteen  years  in  Rome  and  did  most  of  his  work 
there ;  he  wrote  both  secular  and  sacred  compositions  in  the 
strict  polyphonic  style,  and  in  that  of  Willaert.  Claude 
Goudimel  (1510-1572),  though  a  prominent  master  in  Paris, 
worked  much  in  Rome  and  was  the  teacher  of  Palestrina. 
He  set  to  music  in  four  parts  metrical  versions  of  the 
Psalms,  published  in  1565.  In  him  is  to  be  observed  that 
clearness  of  expression  and  beauty  of  melodic  flow  with 
which  Palestrina  attained  such  a  high  point  of  expression. 
Palestrina. — It  remained  for  his  pupil  Palestrina,  (Gio- 
vanni Pierlugi  Sante,  15 14-1594)  an  Italian,  to  reach  the 
highest  point  of  emotional  expression  and  technical  free- 
dom; we  must,  however,  rank  Orlando  di  Lasso  with  him. 
He  carried  to  the  highest  fruition  the  teachings  of  the 
Netherlands,  tempered  by  the  romantic  and  melodic  ten- 
dency of  the  Italian  nature.  His  writings  were  so  free 
technically  that  they  have  been  called  simple  in  form ;  this 
they  are,  but  the  simplicity  is  the  simplicity  of  genius.    His 


THE    ITALIAN    SCHOOL. 


137 


style  is  melodic,  and  has  a  clearness  nt^ver  attained  by  any 
writer  before  his  time,  and  yet  his  music  is  written  in  the 
most  severe  forms.  He  founded  a  school  of  music  in  Rome 
which,  however,  never  produced  any  great  masters,  for  it 
was  the  time  when  the  reformation  of  Opera  began  and 
carried  the  development  of  music  into  other  channels. 


The  end  of  a  composition  by  Palestrina,  showing  the 
melody  in  the  upper  voice  instead  of  the  tenor,  as  was  usu- 
ally the  case  in  polyphonic  compositions,  and  the  use  of  our 
modern  Minor  mode.  This  composition,  at  least  this  last 
part  of  it  taken  alone,  might  be  by  a  modern  writer,  so 
familiar  do  its  progressions  sound ;  indeed,  the  melody  of 
the  first  two  measures  is  strikingly  similar  to  a  progression 
used  by  Beethoven  in  one  of  his  string  quartets.  The  entire 
example  with  words  may  be  seen  in  Naumann,  History  of 
Music,  Vol.  I,  page  510. 

Summary.  —  The  Polyphonic  Era  has  many  important 
characteristics  and  results  which  make  it  worth  while  to 
sum  it  up.  Its  development  is  largely  the  history  of  the 
development  of  vocal  music  to  its  highest  point,  and  the  con- 
sequent failure  of  it  to  provide  accurate  expression  for 
human  needs.  It  marks  the  development  of  scales,  inter- 
vals, forms,  instruments  and  emotion.  In  scales  we  find  the 
trend  to  be  always  toward  the  natural ;  in  intervals,  toward 
freedom,  using  only  the  ear  as  a  criterion ;  in  instruments 
we  note  the  development  of  the  organ,  but  the  lack  of  others 


138  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

which  would  have  changed  music  entirely ;  in  emotion,  we 
note  the  evolution  from  crudeness  to  the  highest  and  most 
polished  forms  of  impersonal  expression.  The  lack  of  the 
Polyphonic  school  was  not  in  the  intrinsic  value  of  the 
music,  nor  in  any  lack  of  the  desire  to  express  emotion; 
the  failure  to  provide  a  suitable  means  of  musical  expres- 
sion was  due  to  the  idea  of  church  relation  to  God  rather 
than  to  the  personal  individualistic  relations  established  by 
Luther.  After  the  Reformation  music  takes  up  this  new 
idea  and  immediately  a  secular  music,  vocal  and  instru- 
mental, begins  to  develop,  culminating  in  an  emotional 
school  of  a  totally  different  and  truer  style  than  the  Poly- 
phonic. Polyphonic  music  expressed  the  old  monkish  ideas 
of  religion  perfectly,  but  monophonic  music  expresses  the 
emotion  of  the  people,  a  universal  emotion.  Polyphonic 
music  must  always  be  appreciated  for  its  value,  but  it  must 
be  examined  for  its  fundamental  principles  and  reasons  for 
being,  before  it  can  be  understood.  Then  we  may  know 
its  value  as  a  foundation  for  our  modern  music. 

References. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  article  on 
Schools  of  Composition,  section  relating  to  Italy. 
Naumann. — History  of  Music,  \^ol.  I. 
Langhans. — History  of  Music. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Why  did  the  centre  of  music  shift  to  Italy? 

What  kind  of  emotion  is  present  in  the  polyphonic  style 
of  music? 

What  composers  were  prominent  outside  of  Italy? 

Name  the  prominent  composers  of  the  Italian  school. 

Sum  up  the  Polyphonic  Era. 

Consult  a  history  of  art  and  give  an  account  of  the  great 
painters,  sculptors,  architects  and  their  greatest  works  during 
the  century  preceding  the  development  of  the  Italian  school. 


LESSON  XIV. 


Palestrina  and  His  Influence  on  the  Music  of 
THE  Italian  School.     The  Madrigal. 


A  Church  Composer. — But  one  master  of  the  Italian  Poly- 
phonic schools  is  worthy  of  lengthy  notice,  more  because 
of  his  influence  on  the  music  of  the  Church  than  his  con- 
tribution to  the  new  instrumental  school  then  only  in  its 
infancy.  Palestrina,  while  acquainted  with  Galilei,  the  re- 
former of  Opera,  and  Neri,  the  originator  of  Oratorio,  and 


PAIvKSTRINA. 

with  many  of  the  men  identified  with  the  new  style  of  vocal 
and  instrumental  music,  gave  his  entire  life  to  the  composing 
of  Church  music,  though  in  his  poverty-stricken  condi- 
tion musical  work  under  wealthy  patronage  must  have 
often  appealed  to  him.  At  any  rate,  the  farthest  he  ever 
strayed  from  the  Church  was  in  the  composing  of  many 
madrigals,  in  which  he  excelled;    it  is  almost  certain  that 

(139) 


140  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

in  these  he  unintentionally  influenced  the  development  of 
instrumental  music.  For  the  present,  however,  a  consid- 
eration of  his  life  and  influence  on  Church  music  is  more 
important.  But  for  him.  Church  music  would  have  lacked 
for  at  least  a  century  that  simple  and  individual  note  so 
often  struck  by  himself  and  Bach.  Palestrina,  by  the  en- 
ormous number  of  his  masses  and  by  the  fertility  of  his 
invention,  placed  the  music  of  the  Latin  Church  on  so  high 
a  plane  that  no  composers,  at  least  until  the  time  of  Bach, 
even  approached  him,  much  less  equalled  him. 

Giovanni  Pierliugi  Sante,  known  as  Palestrina,  after  his 
birth-place,  was  born  in  15 14  at  Palestrina,  a  small  town 
southeast  of  Rome.  His  parents  were  peasants  and  the 
boy  received  but  the  ordinary  education  of  his  class.  While 
very  young  he  seems  to  have  become  a  choir-boy  at  Rome, 
though  it  is  recorded  that  his  voice  was  anything  but  pleas- 
ing. Upon  this  supposition  rests  the  statement  that  he 
was,  for  a  short  time,  a  pupil  of  Arkadelt;  this  is  unim- 
portant because  eventually  (1540)  he  became  a  pupil  of 
Goudimel,  whose  influence  far  overshadowed  that  of  any 
former  teacher.  In  1548  he  married  and  four  sons  were 
the  result  of  the  union,  three,  however,  dying  at  an  early 
age  and  the  fourth  proving,  in  after-life,  a  worthless  fellow. 
In  1 55 1  he  succeeded  Arkadelt  as  choir-master  of  St. 
Peter's ;  later  the  dedication  of  three  masses  to  Pope  Julian 
III -won  him  a  position  as  singer  in  the  Papal  Choir.  Owing 
to  the  jealousy  of  the  other  singers  he  finally  lost  his  posi- 
tion, but  received  an  appointment  at  the  Church  of  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore  where  he  stayed  for  ten  years.  Naumann 
says  that  in  1565  he  received  the  appointment  of  master 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  but  never  occupied  the  position  be- 
cause of  the  opposition  among  the  choir.  Grove,  however, 
says  that  in  1565  he  was  made  composer  to  the  Pontifical 
Choir  and  did  not  become  master  until  1585,  holding  the 
position  from  that  time  on.  In  1571  he  was  again  con- 
nected with  St.  Peter's ;  this  also  marks  his  acquaintance 
with  Neri,  for  whom  he  wrote  some  music,  and  the  found- 
ing of  a  music  school,  though  it  cannot  have  amounted  to 


CHURCH    MUSIC    REFORM.  I4I 

much  since  most  authorities  give  no  particulars  in  regard  to 
it.  Indeed,  it  is  certain  that  he  cannot  have  had  much  in- 
fluence in  that  Hne,  for  his  pupils,  outside  of  his  own  family, 
did  not  amount  to  more  than  a  scant  half-dozen.  In  1576 
he  was  given  the  task  of  revising  the  Gradual  and  Anti- 
phonary  of  the  Latin  Church  but,  with  the  assistance  of 
a  pupil,  finished  only  a  little  more  than  one-half  of  the  work. 
He  died  in  1594  and  was  buried  in  the  Vatican.  His  life 
is  marked  by  the  usual  jealousies  and  quarrels  of  musicians, 
though  Palestrina  himself  seems  to  have  been  nobleminded 
and  more  than  reasonably  free  from  all  such  faults.  He 
was  in  poor  circumstances  during  his  life,  and  his  only 
living  son  was  a  bitter  disappointment.  Altogether,  as  we 
examine  his  life  we  are  impressed  by  many  things ;  first, 
his  apparent  failure  from  a  worldly  point  of  view ;  sec- 
ondly, the  enormous  amount  of  composing  which  he  did ; 
and,  finally,  his  devotion  to  the  Church  and  her  music,  and 
because  of  it,  his  glorious  success  as  a  musician,  and  his 
undying  fame. 

Reform  of  Church  Music. — The  year  marking  the  climax 
of  his  life  was  1565.  The  Council  of  Trent,  by  a  unanimous 
vote,  decided  to  prohibit  the  use  of  music  in  the  Church 
unless  some  means  could  be  devised  to  make  it  more  de- 
votional and  suited  to  its  purpose.  Naumann  says  that  it 
was  the  desire  of  the  Council  of  Trent  to  simplify  the 
music  so  that  the  people  might  take  part  in  the  services ; 
but  Grove  claims  that  it  was  because  of  the  use  of  secular 
music  in  the  composition  of  the  masses.  It  seems  that  it 
was  customary,  for  part  of  the  singers  at  least,  to  sing  in 
services  not  only  the  melodies  of  the  popular  songs,  but  also 
the  words,  thus  producing  confusion  and  defeating  the  very 
purpose  of  the  music.  In  all  probability,  both  of  these 
reasons  had  something  to  do  with  the  edict.  It  is  plain 
that  the  fundamental  principle  at  stake  was  the  lack  of  the 
personal  devotional  note  (which  caused  this  action  by  the 
Council  of  Trent),  and  it  was  the  supplying  of  this  want 
that  made  Palestrina  the  saviour  of  music  in  the  Church. 
A  committee  of  Cardinals  was  appointed  to  see  if  proper 


142  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

music  for  the  service  could  be  found.  They  commissioned 
Palestrina  to  write  a  mass  and  submit  it  for  trial.  When  the 
trial  came,  at  the  home  of  Cardinal  Vitellozzi,  Palestrina 
submitted  three  masses,  the  last  of  which  was  the  best ;  this 
he  afterwards  called  the  "Missa  Papae  Marcelli." 

Palestrina's  Style. — In  these  masses  Palestrina  had  suc- 
ceeded so  well  in  subordinating-  technic  to  expression,  and 
in  eliminating  all  extraneous  matter,  that  he  was  hailed  as 
the  greatest  musician  of  the  Church,  and  honors  were 
showered  upon  him.  From  this  it  would  be  supposed  that 
Palestrina  had  shown  an  entire  change  in  style,  yet  this 
was  not  the  case.  Goudimel,  his  master,  shows  traces  of 
the  so-called  Palestrina  style,  and  Palestrina  himself  was 
gradually  growing  into  that  simplicity  which  marked  the 
music  of  his  later  days.  This  simplicity  was  not  only  sim- 
plicity of  emotion  but  also  simplicity  of  technic ;  only  a 
man  with  a  most  consummate  skill  could  have  written  such 
great  music  with  such  little  use  of  showy  technic.  Pales- 
trina wrote  in  all  of  the  polyphonic  forms,  complex  and 
simple,  but  he  reached  his  highest  point  in  his  most  simple 
works;  and  those  works  were  written  foi  his  Church. 

Secnlar  Art  Song. — The  secular  life  of  the  15th  and  i6th 
centuries,  as  well  as  the  Church,  had  an  art  music,  which, 
like  the  other  music  of  the  period  was  vocal,  not  solos  with 
accompaniments,  but  choral,  consisting  of  three  or  more 
parts ;  this  we  may  call  a  species  of  vocal  chamber  music. 
We  can  trace  the  development  of  this  form  of  musical  com- 
position to  an  application  of  the  principle  of  Discant  to 
secular  or  Folk-melodies.  The  minstrels,  as  mentioned  in 
a  previous  lesson,  were  accustomed  to  improvise  accom- 
panying parts  to  a  familiar  song — a  favorite  custom  was 
that  of  adding  two  parts — for  the  entertainment  of  their 
hearers.  This  process  was  not  a  haphazard  one,  but  fol- 
lowed fixed  rules.  The  absence  of  a  simple  system  of  no- 
tation, however,  prevented  the  accumulation  of  musical  rec- 
ords. And  when  minstrelsy  ceased  to  exist  as  a  calling, 
only  the  memory  of  the  crude  attempts  of  the  minstrels  re- 
mained.    But  the  principle  was  not  lost.     Fortunately  for 


THE    MADRIGAL.  I43 

the  good  of  the  art,  the  trained  musicians  of  the  Cliurch 
took  it  up,  and,  calHng  to  their  aid  the  resources  of  their 
art  as  used  in  the  music  of  the  Church,  appHed  them  all  to 
secular  melodies,  the  songs  of  the  people. 

The  Predecessors  of  the  Madrigal. — Several  of  the  forms 
of  secular  music  found  in  Italy,  the  Frottole  (song  of  the 
mass  or  crowd),  and  the  Vilanelle  (village  or  peasant 
songs),  were  used  in  a  crude  way  by  the  musicians  of  the 
people  as  airs  to  which  to  add  accompanying  parts.  Both 
Germans  and  English  made  similar  use  of  their  folk  mel- 
odies. But  since  the  text  was  usually  of  a  humorous,  or  a 
witty  character,  the  accompanying  melodies  or  "counter- 
points" were  simple  in  style.  The  work  of  the  trained  com- 
posers along  this  Hne  resulted  in  the  Madrigal,  which  shows 
a  union  of  the  musical  spirit  of  the  people  with  the  finest 
poetic  art;  the  melodies  had  the  style  of  the  popular  music, 
but  they  were  used  with  technical  skill. 

The  Madrigal. — The  text  of  the  madrigal  was  erotic  in 
character,  representing  the  emotions  of  a  heart  filled  with 
noble,  often  hopeless  love.  The  Italian  poets  Tasso  and 
Petrarch  were  masters  in  this  style  of  writing.  The  name 
Madrigal  was  first  applied  to  this  kind  of  lyric,  and  after- 
ward became  identified  with  the  music  itself.  There  is  dis- 
agreement as  to  the  origin  of  the  name,  the  common  ex- 
planation being  that  it  comes  from  the  word  mandra,  a 
sheepfold,  mandriale ,  shepherd,  in  allusion  to  the  frequent 
pastoral  character  of  the  text.  The  Madrigal  undoubtedly 
owes  its  origin  to  the  composers  of  the  Flemish  school. 
The  musicians  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century,  had  a  polyphonic  song,  elaborate  in  construction, 
in  the  old  Church  modes,  modeled  doubtless  on  the  plan  of 
the  Motet,  but  using  the  melody  of  some  popular  song  as  a 
Cantus  Firmtis.  When  the  centre  of  musical  power  was 
transferred  to  Italy,  the  madrigal  principle  came  into  new 
hands,  those  of  the  composers  of  the  Venetian  school,  who 
gave  it  the  character  which  made  it  so  popular. 

The  Italian  School. — The  first  great  composer  in  this 
style  was  Adrian  Willaert.    After  him  came  Arkadelt,  who 


144  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

published  several  books  of  madrigals.  The  most  famous 
composer  of  madrigals  was  Luca  Marenzio  (1560-1599), 
called  by  his  contemporaries  "the  sweetest  swan  of  Italy," 
whose  works  attained  extraordinary  vogue.  They  are  ex- 
tremely melodious.  A  composer  who  made  considerable 
use  of  the  chromatic  element  was  Gesualdo,  Prince  of  \'en- 
usia  (1560-1614).  Other  Italian  composers  of  madrigals 
are  Festa,  Palestrina,  Anerio,  \\'aelrant,  Orlando  di  Lasso, 
Cipriano  di  Rore,  \'ecchi  and  Gastoldi,  the  latter  being 
credited  with  the  introduction  of  the  "Fa,  la." 

The  English  School. — The  Madrigal  never  displaced  the 
Folk-song  in  Germany  or  the  Chanson  in  France,  but  it 
found  a  home  in  England,  in  which  country  a  number  of 
composers  were  developed  whose  best  work  is  considered 
to  be  superior  to  that  of  their  Italian  predecessors.  The 
period  of  fifty  years,  beginning  with  1588,  when  the  first 
collection  of  madrigals  was  published  in  London,  is  called 
the  Madrigalian  Era.  The  composers  of  prominence  are: 
William  Byrd,  Thomas  Morley,  Thomas  Weelkes,  John 
Dowland,  John  Wilbye,  Orlando  Gibbons  and  Richard 
Edwardes.  So  great  was  the  interest  in  this  class  of 
music  that  it  was  considered  a  necessary  part  of  the  educa- 
tion of  a  gentleman  that  he  should  be  able  to  sing,  when 
requested,  a  part  in  a  madrigal,  as  we  learn  from  a  work  or 
music  study  published  by  Thomas  Morley  in  1597. 

Characteristics  of  the  Madrigal. — The  best  means  of  se- 
curing an  understanding  of  the  Madrigal  style  is  to  study 
good  examples,  and,  if  possible,  to  hear  them  sung  by  a 
good  choral  organization.  They  are  written  in  three,  four, 
five  and  six  parts,  the  five  part  being  the  one  most  favored. 
The  principle  of  construction  is  polyphonic,  imitation  being 
freely  used,  cross  accents  being  frequent  on  account  of  the 
syncopated  style,  each  part  being  conceived  as  melody,  not 
as  the  result  of  the  movement  of  successive  chords. 

Inflnence  of  the  Madrigal. — The  great  number  of  madri- 
gals written  by  so  many  composers  may  be  taken  as  an  in- 
dication of  the  growth  of  musical  sensibility.  The  creative 
side  developed.     The  composer  was  no  longer  contented 


PRINTING    MUSIC    FROM    MOVABLE   TYPE.  I45 

with  taking"  a  melody  or  some  theme  ready  made,  and  elab- 
orating- it  or  accompanying  it ;  he  invented  his  own  themes, 
thus  opening  the  way  to  the  idea  that  each  text  should 
have  a  theme  to  suit  its  special  character,  a  principle  which 
rules  in  modern  music.  Since  the  themes  thus  took  on 
greater  significance,  it  became  important  that  accompany- 
ing parts  should  not  obscure  them  by  over-elaboration ;  hence 
the  counterpoint  used  became  clearer  and  simpler,  and 
therefore  more  artistic.  Another  fact  of  great  significance 
is  that  frequently  the  madrigals  were  played  by  viols,  in- 
stead of  being  sung  by  voices.  Composers  marked  the  pieces 
as  "Apt  for  viols  or  voices."  It  was  also  customary  to  sing 
one  part  and  play  the  others  on  instruments,  the  design 
being  to  cause  the  melody  to  stand  out  more  clearly ;  this 
aided  in  developing  a  feeling  for  the  solo  with  instru- 
mental accompaniment,  a  fact  of  great  significance  in  pre- 
paring the  way  for  the  opera. 

Petrucci. — Music  owes  a  great  debt  to  Ottaviano  Petrucci. 
who  is  credited  with  devising  a  method  for  printing  music 
from  movable  type.  He  was  born  in  1466,  died  in  1523  or 
shortly  after  that  date.  Before  he  began  his  great  work  all 
music  was  written  out  by  hand,  a  fact  which  necessarily  in- 
terfered with  its  circulation ;  the  works  of  the  great  writers 
were  jealously  guarded  and  students  had  small  chance  to 
profit  by  the  work  of  experienced  composers.  Petrucci  and 
his  successors  changed  this.  In  1501,  he  printed  a  collec- 
tion of  ninety-six  pieces  in  three  and  four  parts  by  Isaac, 
Josquin,  Hobrecht,  Okeghem  and  others;  in  1504,  a  collec- 
tion of  eighty-three  motets  for  four,  five  and  six  voices. 
By  the  time  the  composers  of  the  Venetian  Madrigal  school 
appeared  on  the  scene,  printing  processes  had  been  improved 
and  spread  more  widely ;  thus  their  works  could  be  cir- 
culated freely  and  made  popular.  We  who  know  the  tre- 
mendous power  of  the  printing  press  can  appreciate  the 
new  force  in  the  development  of  music  inaugurated  by 
Petrucci  in  the  early  part  of  the  i6th  century. 


146  the  history  of  music. 

References. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and   Musicians,  articles  on 
Palcstrina  and  the  Madrigal. 
Dickinson. — Music  in  the  History  of  the  Western  Church. 
Parry. — Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,  Chapter  \'. 
Barrett. — English  Glee  and  Madrigal  Writers. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Who  was  the  most  important  of  the  earlier  composers 
for  the  Church  ? 

Give  a  sketch  of  his  life. 

What  did  he  do  for  the  music  of  the  Church? 

What  peculiarities  marked  his  style? 

Give  a  brief  resume  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  (Consult  a 
general  history  or  church  history.) 

What  attempts  at  part  music  did  the  Minstrels  make? 

Who  took  up  this  work  later? 

What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  Madrigal? 

Name  some  composers  of  Madrigals  in  Italy. 

In  what  other  country  did  the  Madrigal  take  hold  ? 

Name  some  of  the  composers  in  that  country  who  cul- 
tivated the  Madrigal  style. 

Name  some  characteristics  of  the  Madrigal. 

What  influence  did  the  Madrigal  exert? 

Who  invented  printing  music  from  movable  types? 

If  the  members  of  the  class  cannot  sing  a  madrigal  or 
there  is  no  choral  society  at  hand  that  sings  them,  a  string 
quartet  can  play  the  parts,  or  any  combination  of  instru- 
ments that  can  represent  the  necessary  four,  five  or  six 
parts ;  two  or  four  players  at  two  pianos  can  give  some  idea. 
Novello  &  Co.  publish  in  cheap  octavo  form  many  of  the 
finest  madrigals  by  the  Italian  and  English  composers.  The 
members  of  the  class  should  sing  or  follow  the  playing  of 
each  part  of  at  least  one  madrigal  and  note  its  essentially 
melodic  character.  This  class  of  compositions  will  also  give 
an  idea  of  the  character  of  the  old  Church  motet  and  the 
methods  used  in  the  masses. 


LESSON  XV. 

Musical  Instruments. 

Classification  of  Instruments. — The  means  for  the  pro- 
duction of  musical  sound  are  few  in  number,  and  of  such 
universaHty  and  antiquity  that  we  cannot  say  when,  how, 
or  by  whom  they  were  invented.  Modern  skill  has  not 
added  one  new  means,  but  has  simply  improved  the  con- 
trivances by  which  musical  sound  is  produced.  We  can, 
however,  trace  the  evolution  and  growth  of  the  various  in- 
struments with  considerable  accuracy,  and  to  this  end  it 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  have  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  principles  upon  which  musical  instruments  are  con- 
structed, in  order  to  avoid  bewilderment  among  the  endless 
variety  that  have  been  and  are  yet  made.  All  instruments 
may  be  divided  into  three  general  classes:  Percussion  In- 
struments,  Wind   Instruments,    Stringed    Instruments. 

The  Percussion  Instruments  are  the  instruments  of  rhythm. 
In  this  class  are  included  all  instruments  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. It  is  universally  admitted  that  rhythm  is  the  very 
basis  of  music,  without  which  it  is  vague  and  meaningless. 
Possibly  the  physical  fact  that  ties  behind  rhythm  is  the 
tendency  of  all  repeated  muscular  action  to  become  regular  ; 
witness  the  blows  of  the  hammer  on  the  anvil,  or  the  car- 
penter driving  in  a  nail.  The  psychologic  reason  is  that 
when  the  will  has  set  a  certain  muscular  action  in  motion,  it 
leaves  the  carrying  out  of  the  command  to  some  subordinate 
function,  so  long  as  it  is  continuous;  but  if  the  continuity 
is  to  be  interrupted,  the  will  must  again  exert  itself ;  hence, 
drumbeating  and  rattle  shaking  must  of  necessity  be  rhyth- 
mic. Nearly  all  savages  have  dances  of  various  kinds. 
Varieties  of  drum  rhythms  arise  from  the  almost  universal 
custom  of  accompanving  dances  with  drums  and  rattles. 

(147) 


148  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Varieties  of  Percussion  Instruments. — Percussion  instru- 
ments are  almost  endless  in  variety.  The  most  primitive 
example  is  that  of  a  hollow  log  beaten  with  a  war-club  by 
some  prehistoric  savage.  The  next  step  leads  to  the  hollow 
gourd  or  other  hollow  body,  across  the  open  end  of  which 
is  stretched  the  dried  membrane  of  some  wild  animal. 
From  these  descend  all  the  long  line  of  drums  of  all  sorts, 
ending  with  the  modern  orchestral  kettle-drums  (tympani) 
which,  by  means  of  a  mechanism  for  changing  the  tension 
of  their  parchment  heads,  may  be  tuned  in  various  keys. 
Percussion  instruments  of  metal  are  of  very  ancient  origin. 
In  this  category  are  included  cymbals  of  various  sizes  and 
shapes,  gongs  of  all  sorts,  and  later,  bells  and  triangles. 
Comparatively  few  of  the  percussion  instruments  emit 
sounds  of  any  definite  pitch.  They  were  and  are  to  a  great 
extent  noise-producing,  used  for  the  purpose  of  marking 
rhythms. 

Wind  Instruments:  Vibrating  Column  of  Air  in  a  Tube. 
— The  next  step  in  advance  of  noise-producing  instruments 
is  the  discovery  of  means  for  the  production  of  musical 
sound,  which  differs  from  noise  in 'the  possession  of  deiinite 
pitch.  This  leads  to  a  consideration  of  the  wind  instruments 
that  produce  sound  by  means  of  a  vibrating  column  of  air 
enclosed  in  a  tube.  This  is  an  important  class  and  has 
several  subdivisions,  as  will  be  seen.  The  simplest  form  of 
the  wind  instrument  is  the  plain  tube,  producing  a  single 
sound  when  blown  across  the  top.  A  series  of  such  tubes 
fastened  together  side  by  side  constitutes  the  Syrinx  or 
Pan's  pipe,  an  instrument  known  over  all  the  world  from 
the  remotest  ages.  This  is  thought  to  be  the  instrument 
mentioned  in  Genesis  with  the  Hebrew  name  Ugab — trans- 
lated organ,  in  the  verse :  "Jubal  was  the  father  of  all  such 
as  handle  the  harp  or  the  organ."  It  is  generally  believed  by 
scholars  that  the  Pandean  Pipe  or  Syrinx  is  the  oldest  of 
musical  instruments;  but  long  before  a  sufficient  advance 
had  been  made  to  bind  together  several  reeds  giving  differ- 
ent sounds,  the  discovery  was  made  that  sound  might  be 
produced  in  this  way.     Some  prehistoric  man  found  it  out, 


WIND    INSTRUMENTS.  I49 

perhaps  by  blowing  across  the  top  of  a  hollow  bone.  A 
whistle  of  this  kind,  of  prehistoric  make,  bored  from  one 
of  the  bones  of  a  reindeer's  foot,  was  found  in  a  bone 
cave  in  France,  It  may  have  been  used  as  a  signal,  and 
we  may  imagine  that  it  may  have  guided  a  troop  of  paL'eo- 
lithic  hunters  in  the  chase  of  the  mammoth  or  rhinoceros, 
when  these  animals  still  roamed  over  the  plains  of  Europe. 

A  Tube  Pierced  with  Holes. — The  next  advance  was  the 
discovery  that  one  tube  could  be  made  to  give  several  sounds 
by  piercing  holes  in  it.  The  effect  of  piercing  is  equivalent 
to  shortening  the  tube;  thus  the  Flute  came  into  existence. 
There  are  three  forms  of  the  flute ;  the  simplest  is  the  old 
Japanese  flute,  blown  at  the  end  and  pierced  with  a  few 
holes.  Next,  the  endless  variety  of  flutes  blown  at  a  hole 
in  the  side,  hence  called  the  cross  flute,  or  Flattto  Traversa, 
in  German,  Querflote.  A  perfect  series  of  these  flutes  may 
be  made.  From  the  piece  of  bamboo  with  three  or  four 
holes,  up  to  the  exquisite  workmanship  and  musical  possi- 
bilities of  the  orchestral  Boehm  flute,  all  these  flutes  are 
identical  in  principle.  The  third  kind  of  flute  is  blown  at 
the  end  and  is  furnished  with  a  diaphragm,  which  directs  the 
air  in  a  thin  stream  against  the  edge  of  the  opening.  Flutes 
of  this  kind  were  once  used  under  the  names  of  flageolet  and 
recorder.  Their  chief  interest  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  have 
served  as-  the  model  for  the  flue  pipes  of  the  organ,  from 
the  ponderous  thirty-two  foot  Diapason  to  the  half-inch 
extreme  of  the  Mixture. 

The  Tube  with  a  Reed. — The  next  subdivision  is:  The 
tube  in  conjunction  with  a  tongue  or  slip  of  cane,  called  a 
reed.  Reed  instruments  are  further  divided  into  single  and 
double  reed  instruments.  The  double  reed  instrument  is  of 
great  antiquity  and  widely  known.  This  is  the  instrument 
generally  meant  by  the  term  "flute"  in  the  ancient  Greek 
authors.  It  is  known  in  China  and  Thibet,  and  in  its  mod- 
ern form  as  Hautboy  (oboe),  English  Horn  or  Bassoon,  is 
an  important  member  of  the  modern  orchestra.  The  beat- 
ing or  single  reed  is  so-called  because  it  is  made  a  little 
larger  than  the  orifice  over  which  it  is  fixed,  and  therefore 


150  '  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

beats  against  this  orifice  at  every  vibration,  closing  it  and 
causing  the  air  to  be  emitted  in  puffs.  This  form  of  reed 
instrument  is  also  widely  distributed.  l^)y  the  Greeks  it 
was  called  the  Herecynthian  pipe ;  in  modern  Egypt 
Arghool,  in  early  England  the  Shawm,  which  is  a  corruption 
of  an  older  French  name — Chahuneaii.  L'nder  the  name 
Clarinet  it  is  another  important  member  of  the  orchestra. 
The  beating  reed  also  furnishes  the  model  after  which  the 
reed  stops  of  the  organ  are  constructed. 

The  Tube  with  the  Lips  of  the  Player. — The  last  sub- 
division is  the  tube  in  conjunction  with  the  lip  of  the 
performer,  the  lips  assuming  the  role  of  the  reed.  Count- 
less varieties  of  trumpets  have  been  used  from  time  im- 
memorial, made  at  first  from  that  natural  tube  that  has 
given  them  their  generic  name,  the  "horn"  of  the  ox  or 
goat  or  antelope.  The  forms  of  the  horn  are  endkss,  but 
from  the  conch  shell  of  the  Japanese  or  the  ram's  horn 
Shofar  of  the  Hebrews  to  the  perfectly  tuned  and  mechani- 
cally perfect  instruments  of  our  bands  and  orchestras  the 
series  is  complete,  and  the  acoustic  principle  in  all  respects 
identical. 

Stringed  Instruments  Played  by  Plucking. — The  stringed 
instruments  are  those  which  depend  for  their  sound  upon 
the  vibration  of  stretched  strings.  This  class  of  instruments 
is  of  very  ancient  origin.  As  in  the  case  of  the  wind  in- 
struments, the  discovery  of  the  principle  of  the  vibration 
of  a  stretched  string  was  probably  accidental.  The  twang- 
ing of  a  bow-string  suggests  a  possible  clue,  or  the  mem- 
branes of  animals  used  for  any  purpose  in  which  tension  is 
required.  Earliest  among  stringed  instruments  are  the 
various  forms  of  Harp  or  Lyre,  in  which  each  string  gives 
a  single  sound,  and  is  put  in  motion  by  being  plucked  by 
the  finger  or  struck  by  a  rod  or  flat  strip  of  wood,  ivory, 
etc.,  called  a  plectrum.  In  the  next  class  are  included  those 
instruments  that  are  furnished  with  a  neck  or  fingerboard, 
with  or  without  frets.  In  this  class  the  strings  are  com- 
paratively few  in  number,  as  many  sounds  may  be  obtained 
from  each  string  by  altering  its  length  by  the  pressure  of 


STRING    INSTRUMENTS.  I5I 

the  fingers  on  the  neck.  These  instruments  are  also  played 
either  with  the  fingers  or  the  plectrum ;  to  this  class  belong 
the  Guitar,  Lute,  Mandolin,  etc. 

The  Lute  Family. — For  many  years,  until  displaced  by  in- 
struments of  the  violin  family,  the  Lute  occupied  the  fore- 
most position  among  instruments.  It  was  a  favorite  instru- 
ment in  the  East,  whence  it  reached  Spain  and  lower  Italy. 
During  the  14th  century,  it  spread  over  all  Europe,  retain- 
ing its  popularity  from  the  15th  to  the  17th  centuries.  In 
shape  it  was  similar  to  the  mandolin  of  the  present  day.  It 
had,  however,  a  far  greater  number  of  strings.  Five  pairs 
of  these  and  a  single  melody  string  lay  over  the  keyboard, 
while  the  bass  strings  (finally  five  in  number  and  used  only 
as  open  strings)  lay  at  the  side.  More  elaborate  forms  of 
the  lute,  owing  to  improvements  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
bass  strings,  were  the  Theorbo  and  the  Archilute.  For  the 
various  forms  of  the  lute  the  ordinary  measured  notation 
was  not  used,  but  special  letters  or  figures  were  given  to 
indicate,  not  the  pitch  of  the  sound,  but  the  proper  fret  on 
the  fingerboard  of  the  instrument  to  be  used  by  the  player. 
This  method  of  notation  was  called  Tablature;  it  differed 
somewhat  in  the  various  countries.  Until  displaced  by  the 
violin,  the  lute  was  in  use  as  an  orchestral  instrument.  In 
addition,  transcriptions  of  all  sorts  of  vocal  and  instru- 
mental pieces  were  made  for  the  lute,  for  home  use,  much 
in  the  same  manner  as  they  are  at  the  present  day  made  for 
the  pianoforte. 

Stringed  Instruments  Played  with  a  Bow. — The  next  and 
most  important  class  resembles  the  last  in  being  furnished 
with  a  neck  or  fingerboard,  but  with  strings  put  in  vibra- 
tion by  a  bow,  the  familiar  Violin  family.  A  German 
writer  on  the  stringed  instruments  played  with  a  bow  gives 
the  following  as  the  successive  steps  in  the  evolution  of  the 
violin:  Rebec,  Tromba  Marina,  Hurdy  Gurdy,  Fidel  (Fi- 
dula),  Chrotta,  Viole,  and  Violin.  The  early  history  of  in- 
struments is  shrouded  in  darkness,  which  existed  up  to  the 
1 6th  century.  Before  that  time,  although  writers  on  music 
made  reference  to  the  instruments  in  use,  they  did  not  give 


152 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUarlC. 


detailed  descriptions.  \'ir(Iung-,  wlio  published  a  work  in 
151 1  ;  Agricola,  in  1528;  and  Gcrle,  in  1546.  were  among 
the  first  writers.  Yet  much  confusion  has  arisen  from  the 
fact  that  these  writers  used  different  terms  for  the  same 
instruments,  a  difficulty  that  confronts  the  student  of  musical 
history  who  consults  German,  French,  or  Italian  works. 

I.  The  Rebec  was  of  Oriental  orie^in  and  consisted  of  a 
wooden  frame,  which  formed  the  side  walls,  the  top  and  the 
bottom  being  spanned  with  skin,  like  a  drum.     The  instru- 


Rebec.        Ltbe   (According  to  Gebbebt). 


Bass  Viol. 


ment  had  only  two  strings,  and  was  used  in  accompanying 
singing.  Later  the  number  of  strings  was  increased  to  three. 
In  the  8th  or  9th  century  an  instrument  called  the  Lyra 
(Lyre)  was  in  use.  Its  shape  shows  a  change  toward  the 
pear-shaped  body  and  narrow  neck  of  the  lute. 

2.  The  Tromba  Marina  (Eng.,  literally,  "Marine  Trum- 
pet"), which  the  Germans  call  Trumscheit,  had  a  long, 
sonorous  body,  over  which  a  strong  string,  like  that  of  the 
'cello  D,  was  stretched.  This  string,  when  sounded  with 
the  bow,  gave  forth  a  harsh,  somewhat  nasal  tone,  similar 


EVOLUTION    OF   THE   VIOL.  I53 

to  that  of  the  8-foot  wooden  organ  reed-pipe.  But  the 
proper  way  to  play  it  was  by  hghtly  touching  the  string  with 
the  finger,  as  in  making  harmonics  on  the  viohn.  This  gave 
a  series  of  tones,  according  to  the  pitch  of  the  open  string, 
the  same  as  the  so-called  over-tones.  If  the  string  were 
tuned  to  low  C,  the  sounds  were  middle  C,  then  in  succession 
E,  G,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  B,  C.  This  instrument  was  a 
favorite  with  choirs  of  nuns  to  accompany  their  singing. 
Another  name  given  to  this  instrument  from  its  single  string 
is  Monochord. 

3.  The  Hurdy  Gurdy,  also  called  Vielle,  Radleier  ("wheel 
lyre"),  Bettlerleier  ("mendicants'  lyre"),  Organistrum  and 
Chilfonie,  was  a  great  favorite  in  the  period  from  the  loth 
to  the  1 2th  century.  This  peculiar  instrument  consisted  of  a 
resonant  body,  over  which  four  strings  were  stretched.  It 
has  analogies  to  bowed  and  keyed  instruments.  Its  shape 
was  somewhat  like  that  of  the  lute  or  the  viola  d'amore  or 
guitar.  Two  of  the  strings  were  tuned  in  unison,  were 
stopped  by  an  arrangement  of  keys,  directed  by  the  player's 
left  hand  shortening  the  string,  thus  making  it  possible  to 
play  melodies  of  a  limited  compass.  The  other  two  strings 
were  usually  tuned  as  Tonic  and  Dominant,  thus  giving  a 
drone  like  the  bagpipe.  The  strings  are  set  in  vibration  by 
a  wooden  wheel,  which,  being  well  rosined,  has  the  function 
of  a  violin  bow ;  this  wheel  is  turned  by  a  handle  at  the  tail 
end  of  the  instrument,  the  player  using  his  right  hand  for 
the  purpose. 

4.  The  Chrotta  (Welsh  Crwth — "crooth")  is  one  of  the 
oldest  of  string  instruments  played  with  a  bow.  The  orig- 
inal home  was  possibly  India,  but  in  its  European  use  it  was 
limited  to  England,  and  especially  to  Wales.  It  was  a 
favorite  instrument  of  the  Welsh  bards.  The  oldest  form 
had  three  strings.  In  its  later  form  it  was  mounted  with  six 
strings,  four  stretched  over  the  fingerboard  and  played  with 
the  bow,  and  two  lying  at  the  side  of  the  fingerboard,  and 
pinched  with  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand. 

5.  Fidula  (Fidel,  Fiddle),  equivalent  to  "viol,"  is  the 
comprehensive  term  for  the  string  instruments  of  the  8th 


154  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

to  the  14th  century.  Its  resonant  body  was  arched  and  pear- 
shaped.  The  French  flattened  it  more  and  called  it  Gigue, 
the  Italians  Giga,  the  Germans  Geigc,  the  latter  term  still 
being  used.  Two  varieties  were  in  use — the  small  and  the 
large.  The  former  had  three  strings  tuned  in  fifths,  the 
latter  four  to  six,  usually  tuned  in  fourths  and  one  third. 
The  "large"  species  was  made  in  four  sizes  for  Discant 
(soprano),  Alto,  Tenor,  and  Bass.  The  "large"  instrument 
had  no  bridge  such  as  the  violin  of  today  has,  and  in  its 
rounded  form  was  difficult  to  play.  Later  it  was  cut  out  at 
the  sides,  thus  approaching  the  shape  of  our  violin. 

6.  The  Viol,  which  first  appears  in  the  15th  century,  had 
a  resonant  body  which  came  almost  to  a  point  back  of  the 
neck,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  body  of  the  instrument  was 
smaller  than  the  lower;  the  fingerboard  had  frets  like  our 
guitar;  the  edges  were  higher,  the  /  holes  were  sickle- 
shaped,  the  top  was  fiat,  and  the  number  of  strings  was  six. 
Viols  were  divided  into  two  groups — those  held  with  the 
arm  (like  our  violin),  those  played  between  the  knees  (like 
our  'cello).  They  were  named  the  soprano  or  discant  viol 
(violetta),  the  alto  and  tenor  viols,  and  the  bass  vio! 
(gamba).  The  contrabass  or  double  bass  has  the  viol  form 
in  certain  respects. 

From  the  viol  family  comes  our  violin  through  a  diminu- 
tion and  beautifying  of  the  form,  through  lessening  the 
number  of  strings  and  doing  away  with  the  frets. 

References. 

Lavignac. — Music  and  Musicians.  Section  on  Instru- 
ments. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  articles  on 
the  various  instruments. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

What  are  the  general  classes  into  which  musical  instru- 
ments are  grouped? 

Name  the  percussion  instruments. 


LESSON    HELPS.  1 55 

Name  the  principles  of  classification  for  wind  instrunients. 

Give  examples  of  each  class. 

What  is  a  reed?     How  many  kinds  are  in  use? 

What  methods  of  producing  sound  are  used  in  playing 
stringed  instruments? 

Give  examples  of  each  class. 

Give  a  description  of  the  lute. 

Name  the  steps  in  the  evolution  of  the  violin. 

The  catalogues  of  the  instruments  contained  in  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  (Crosby-Brown  Collection),  New  York 
City,  will  be  found  very  useful  for  reference.  This  collec- 
tion is  one  of  the  most  complete  in  the  world,  and  is  ar- 
ranged so  as  to  show  the  development  of  instruments  of  the 
various  types.  They  can  be  secured  at  slight  expense  by 
addressing  the  Museum. 


LESSON  XVI. 

The  Organ,  Organ  Playing  and  Organ  Music. 

In  the  book  of  Genesis  it  is  written:  "Jut)al,  he  was  the 
father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and  organ."  It  is  not 
to  be  understood  that  the  word  organ  in  this  passage  meant 
an  instrument  anything  like  that  heard  in  our  churches  at 
the  present  day.  In  fact,  as  St.  Augustine  tells  us,  there  was 
a  time  when  all  musical  instruments  were  called  organs. 

The  Germ  of  the  Organ. — The  invention  of  the  organ  is 
veiled  in  deepest  darkness.  Its  development  from  its  ear- 
liest forms  to  its  present  state  has  occupied  a  period  of 
almost  two  thousand  years.  Doubtless,  the  first  idea  of  a 
wind  instrument  was  suggested  by  the  breeze  blowing  across 
the  open  ends  of  broken  reeds,  the  discovery  naturally  fol- 
lowing that  reeds  of  different  lengths  gave  forth  sounds  of 
varying  pitch.  In  course  of  time,  reeds  or  pipes,  differing 
in  length,  began  to  be  joined  together,  conveniently  ar- 
ranged so  as  to  produce  a  succession  of  musical  sounds,  the 
players  blowing  them  with  the  mouth.  These  instruments 
were  called  Pan's  Pipes,  the  Syrinx  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 

The  First  Stage  of  Development. — As  the  number  of  pipes 
was  increased,  the  moving  of  the  head  back  and  forth  in 
order  to  blow  them  became  difficult.  The  pipes  were  then 
placed  in  a  sort  of  box  or  wind  chest,  a  tube  being  added 
through  which  the  player  could  blow,  the  pipes  not  in- 
tended to  sound  being  closed  by  the  fingers.  Furthermore, 
as  the  pipes  were  increased  in  number  and  in  size,  it  be- 
came necessary  to  employ  various  mechanical  accessories 
to  furnish  adequate  wind  supply,  and  to  open  and  close  the 
pipes  at  will,  the  breath  and  fingers  of  the  player  proving 
insufficient.  A  device  was  invented  in  the  form  of  a  slide, 
rule  or  tongue  of  wood,  which  was  placed  beneath  the 
(156) 


THE    HYDRAULIC    ORGAN. 


157 


aperture  of  the  pipe,  and  perforated  so  as  to  shut  off  or 
admit  wind  to  the  pipe  as  it  was  drawn  back  or  forth.  The 
earHest  form  of  bellows  might  be  suggested  by  the  leathern 
bag  of  the  bagpipe.  In  this  the  wind  pressure  was  un- 
steady and  the  tone  necessarily  disconnected. 

The  Hydraulic  Organ. — The  first  attempts  to  secure  reg- 
ular or  steady  wind  pressure  were  made  by  Ctesibus,  who 
lived  at  Alexandria,  about  180  B.  C.  To  him  is  ascribed 
the  invention  of  the  so-called  ''Hydraulic  Organ."  This 
term  seems  somewhat  of  a  misnomer,  since  the  water  was 
used  merely  to  give  the  necessary  pressure  to  the  bellows, 


Pan's  Pipes    (Syrinx) 


Early  Form  of  the  Organ. 


and  to  regulate  the  wind  supply.  This  method  was  never 
developed,  since  the  device  did  not  seem  applicable  to  in- 
struments of  any  considerable  size.  The  trend  was  rather 
toward  a  wind  supply  from  a  bellows  operated  on  the  same 
principle  as  that  of  the  blacksmith's.  In  the  Hydraulic  Or- 
gan the  water  was  thus  applied :  An  inverted  air  receiver, 
into  which  the  wind  was  forced  by  a  bellows,  was  im- 
mersed in  a  tank  of  water,  the  pressure  of  the  water  around 
and  above  the  receiver  forcing  the  air  through  an  aperture 
at  the  top  into  the  pipes,  the  pressure  being  regulated  by 


158  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

the  volume  of  water  in  the  tank.  The  hydrauHc  organ 
continued  more  or  less  in  use  up  to  the  early  part  of  the 
14th   century. 

The  Earliest  Organs. — The  organ  developed  little  as  to 
size  or  mechanical  improvements  during  the  first  ten  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  Era,  and  it  is  difficult  to  trace  the 
progressive  stages  in  point  of  time,  place  or  mechanical 
invention.  The  first  organ  known  to  the  people  of  Western 
Europe  was  a  present  from  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Con- 
stantine,  to  Pepin  the  Short,  Major-Domo  of  the  Prankish 
Kingdom,  in  742.  It  had  brass  pipes  and  the  "keys"  were 
struck  by  hands  and  feet.  Eastern  organs  also  came  into 
France  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  son  of  Pepin.  The 
first  organ  used  in  Germany  was  made  in  812,  modelled 
after  the  one  just  mentioned.  In  880,  the  Pope  ordered  an 
organ  and  an  organ  builder  from  Germany,  which  seems 
to  indicate  that  the  art  had  found  support  there  at  an  early 
date.  Although  not  considered  absolutely  indispensable, 
the  organ  from  that  time  on  seems  to  have  been  generally 
adopted  for  use  in  churches.  Its  many  imperfections  gave 
ground  for  criticism,  yet  today  it  is  considered,  par  excel- 
lence, the  ecclesiastical  instrument. 

Increase  in  the  Size  of  Organs. — The  organ  builders  of 
these  early  days  were  mostly  monks.  Pope  Sylvester  II 
(1003)  being  eminent,  under  the  name  of  Gerbert,  prior 
to  his  election  to  the  papacy.  They  built  small  organs 
called  "Portative,"  and  large  organs  called  "Positive." 
The  old  hydraulic  organ,  owing  to  its  excessive  weight, 
was  called  "Positive"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  "Portative" 
or  portable  organ,  and  these  terms  have  been  perpetuated 
to  the  present  time.  An  organ  built  for  the  Cathedral  at 
Winchester,  England,  had  ten  keys,  four  hundred  pipes  and 
twenty-six  bellows,  which  were  operated  by  seventy  men, 
•'in  the  sweat  of  their  brows."  Since  forty  pipes  were  at- 
tached to  a  single  key,  it  may  be  readily  understood  why  its 
tone  was  compared  to  thunder.  The  keys  were  very  large, 
having  a  deep  fall,  and  required  the  whole  force  of  the 
hand  to  press  down  a  single  one. 


IMPROVEMENTS    IN    THE   ORGAN.  159 

Mechanical  Improvements.- — The  ])ipcs  in  the  early  orj^ans 
were  made  of  copper,  lead,  tin.  silver,  glass,  ivory  and 
various  woods,  but  experiments  finally  showed  tin  or  wood 
to  be  best  suited  for  the  purpose.  The  earliest  organs  had 
about  twelve  pipes,  and  the  larger  instruments  three  octaves, 
but  without  the  chromatic  intervals.  The  pipes  were  ar- 
ranged according  to  the  sequence  of  tones  in  the  old 
Church  modes,  the  octave  containing  but  three  semitones: 
between  E-F,  A-B  flat  and  B-C.  The  chromatic  tones  were 
added  gradually,  the  breadth  of  the  keys  being  correspond- 
ingly reduced  as  the  increased  number  of  keys  occupied 
the  same  space  as  before.  Heretofore,  the  wind  had  usually 
been  forced  from  the  bellozvs  by  the  zveight  of  men  stand- 
ing upon  them,  but  in  the  loth  century  use  began  to  be 
made  of  a  lever,  the  bellows  presumably  being  weighted. 

The  Keyhoard  is  Adopted. — In  the  nth  century,  the  key- 
board appeared,  supplanting  the  levers  and  slides,  pre- 
viously in  use.  The  first  organ  containing  this  marked  im- 
provement was  made  for  the  Cathedral  at  Magdeburg,  Ger- 
many. It  had  sixteen  keys.  In  1350,  a  monk  at  Thorn 
built  an  organ  with  twenty-two  keys,  and  in  1361  an  organ 
was  built  for  the  Cathedral  at  Halberstadt  with  fourteen 
diatonic  and  eight  chromatic  tones  in  a  compass  extending 
from  B,  second  line,  bass  staflf,  to  A,  second  space,  treble. 
This  organ  had  three  keyboards,  now  termed  manuals. 

The  Pedals. — The  invention  of  pedals  is  variously  ascribed 
to  Albert  Van  Os  (about  1120),  to  Van  Valbeke,  of  Bra- 
bant, and  to  a  German  named  Bernhard  (1470),  an  organ- 
ist of  Venice.  The  latter  probably  improved,  but  did  not 
invent  the  pedals.  The  pedals  at  first  did  not  exceed  the 
compass  of  an  octave,  and  were  used  only  for  sustaining 
prolonged  tones.  They  were  fastened  to  the  broad  manual 
keys  by  stout  cords,  thus  enabling  the  performer  to  draw 
down  the  desired  key  with  the  foot.  About  the  year  1418 
the  pedals  began  to  be  attached  to  independent  pedal-pipes, 
thus  imparting  to  the  organ  a  certain  dignity  and  sonority, 
still  a  chief  characteristic  of  the  instrument.  After  1475, 
all  important  organs  were  built  with  pedal  keyboard. 


ibO  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

The  Introduction  of  Stops. — Up  to  the  14th  century,  the 
different  registers  (set  of  pipes  witli  uniform  tone  quahty) 
could  not  be  sounded  separately,  that  is  to  say :  all  the 
pipes  belonging  to  any  one  key  sounded  when  that  key 
was  depressed.  At  the  close  of  the  14th  century  it  was 
found  possible  to  add  valves  to  the  pipes  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  cause  the  wind  to  pass  through  or  be  cut  off  from 
any  series  of  pipes  at  will.  The  opening  and  closing  was 
managed  through  a  spring.  The  next  improvement  was  to 
introduce  a  slide  to  open  or  close  the  passage  of  wand  into 
the  pipes.  With  these  improvements  it  became  possible  for 
builders  to  set  themselves  to  the  improvement  of  the  various 
"stops"  or  registers. 

Improvements  in  Stops. — In  the  15th  century,  pipes  of 
sixteen  and  thirty-two  feet  in  length  began  to  be  used,  neces- 
sitating a  greatly  enlarged  bellows.  Pipes  were  closed  at 
the  top,  thereby  lowering  the  pitch  an  octave.  They  were 
given  smaller  diameters,  producing  a  softer  tone  quality. 
The  shapes  of  the  pipes  were  varied,  giving  additional 
variety  in  tone  quality. 

Thus  began  the  broad  classifications  of  "Open"  and 
"Stopped"  pipes  in  all  their  varieties.  The  "Reeds"  (pipes 
containing  a  vibrator  or  tongue  to  set  the  column  of  air 
in  motion)  were  familiar  to  the  earliest  performers,  but 
were  not  introduced  into  the  organ  until  as  late  as  the  14th 
century.  Further  improvements  were  made  in  the  bellows 
at  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century. 

St.  Mary's,  Luebeck. — In  1561,  a  three-manual  organ  was 
in  use  in  St.  Mary's,  Liibeck,  Germany.  To  this  organ  all 
the  important  improvements  were  successively  added  at 
various  intervals  until  it  had,  at  the  beginning  of  the  i8th 
century,  in  the  three  manuals,  respectively,  thirteen,  fourteen 
and  fifteen  stops,  and  in  the  pedal,  fifteen  stops.  It  was  to 
hear  the  famous  Buxtehude  play  upon  this  organ  that 
Sebastian  Bach  w^alked  fifty  miles  in  1705. 

Design  of  Improvements. — Great  improvements  have  been 
made  in  organ  building  since  the  time  of  Bach,  all  de- 
signed to  give  the  player  greater  resources,  and  increased 


EARLY   ORGANISTS.  l6l 

facility  in  the  handling  and  control  of  the  resources,  which 
in  the  present  day  are  simply  enormous. 

The  Organ  in  the  American  Colonies. — Although  the  first 
organs  heard  in  America  were  probably  introduced  by  the 
Spaniards,  of  these  there  are  no  authentic  records.  Ac- 
cording to  reliable  historic  data,  the  famous  old  "Brattle" 
organ  was  "the  first  organ  that  ever  pealed  to  the  glory  of 
God  in  this  country."  It  was  imported  from  London,  in 
1713,  by  Mr.  Thomas  Brattle,  who  bequeathed  it  to  the 
Brattle  Street  Church,  Boston,  directing  that  the  parish 
"procure  a  sober  person  that  can  play  skilfully  thereon 
with  a  loud  noise."  This  organ  became  the  property  of 
King's  Chapel,  Boston,  and  was  used  until  1756. 

No  Art  in  Early  Organ  Playing. — The  organs  of  the 
early  Christian  period  were  of  such  a  character  that  playing, 
in  the  sense  in  which  we  now  understand  the  word,  was 
out  of  the  question.  For  some  time  the  span  of  the  hand 
possible  to  players  did  not  exceed  the  distance  of  a  fifth. 
If  an  octave  was  to  be  struck,  a  second  player  was  neces- 
sary. Only  with  the  narrowing  of  the  keys  did  artistic 
playing  become  possible.  In  fact,  organ  playing  has  in- 
variably reflected  the  style  and  development  of  contem- 
porary musical  art. 

Early  Organists. — The  credit  of  being  "father  of  organ- 
ists" is  given  to  Francesco  Landino,  of  Florence  (1325- 
1390),  and  after  him  to  Bernhard,  mentioned  as  the  inventor 
of  the  organ  pedals.  The  oldest  organ  compositions  are 
some  works  by  Eonrad  Faumann  (1410-1473),  who  was 
born  blind,  yet,  like  many  others  since,  became  a  thor- 
oughly trained  musician  in  spite  of  his  affliction.  «He  also 
played  other  instruments  and  was  a  fine  contrapuntist.  An- 
other of  the  early  organists  is  Benedictus  Ducis  (or  Her- 
toghs),  born  at  Bruges,  about  1480.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Josquin  des  Pres.  From  Ducis,  representing  the  second 
Flemish  school,  as  founded  by  Okeghem,  there  is  a  chain 
almost  of  master  and  pupil,  between  the  early  masters  of 
organ  playing  and  polyphonic  writing  and  Bach,  who  in 
these  arts  became  the  master  of  all.     Paumann's   pieces 


l62  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

show  tlie  style  of  composiiij^  for  the  instrument  that  was 
considered  appropriate.  The)-  are  essentially  transcribed, 
but  elaborated,  vocal  works.  The  compositions  of  the  next 
organists  of  fame,  Willaert,  of  Venice  (1490-1562),  and 
Cyprian  di  Rore  (1516-1565),  pupil  of  the  former,  have 
distinct  names.  Riccrcari,  Intonationi,  Contrapunti,  Toccati, 
Praeamhula,  and  Canzoni,  but  the  character  remains  the 
same,  vocal  pieces,  elaborated  and  freely  embellished  with 
runs  and  other  passage  work.  Later  the  term  Ricercari 
came  to  mean  a  sort  of  fantasia  in  fugal  form,  often  on  a 
popular  air;  Toccata  became  a  free  fantasia  with  brilliantly 
figurated  passages,  and  a  Praearnbiilo  a  prelude  to  a  larger 
piece.  Other  famous  organists  of  this  period  were  Bernhard 
Schmidt  (1520-?),  German;  Claudio  Merulo  (1532-1604), 
organist  at  Venice,  and  his  successors,  the  two  Gabrieli's. 

Frescobaldi  and  His  Successors. — The  greatest  of  all  the 
organists  of  the  earlier  days,  to  whom  the  title  of  "Father 
of  true  organ  playing"  has  been  given,  was  Girolamo  Fres- 
cobaldi, born  in  1583  at  Ferrara,  in  Italy,  educated  in  Flan- 
ders, and  from  1608  to  his  death  in  1644  organist  at  St. 
Peter's,  Rome.  His  fame  was  so  great  that  the  spacious 
cathedral  was  often  filled  when  he  gave  an  organ  recital. 
His  compositions,  many  of  which  have  been  preserved,  have 
a  very  decided  contrapuntal  character,  whence  some  have 
called  him  the  inventor  of  the  organ  fugue.  Two  prominent 
German  organists,  whose  compositions  were  studied  by 
Bach,  were  Caspar  Kerl  (1627-1693),  and  Jacob  Froberger 
( 1667),  both  of  whom  lived  in  Vienna.  The  most  emi- 
nent organist  of  the  17th  century  was  Johann  Peter  Swee- 
linck  (1562-1621),  pupil  of  Zarhno,  the  famous  Italian 
theorist,  and  of  Andreas  Gabrieli,  organist  of  Venice.  Swee- 
linck  occupied  the  position  of  organist  at  the  Cathedral 
in  Arnsterdam,  and  gave  much  attention  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  fugal  style  of  composition.  His  compositions 
are  of  the  highest  importance  historically,  since  they  ex- 
hibit the  first  known  examples  of  the  independent  use  of 
the  pedals  in  a  real  fugal  part.  He  was  the  most  eminent 
organist  of  his  time  (being  called  the  organist  maker) ,  and 


EARLY   ORGANISTS. 


103 


was  the  teacher  of  the  following  noted  players:  Jacob 
Praetorius  (died  at  Hamburg  in  1651)  ;  Heinrich  Scheide- 
mann  (1596-1663),  also  located  at  Hamburg;  Jan  Adams 
Reinken  (1623-1722),  from  1663  organist  and  successor 
to  Scheidemann  at  th9  Catherine  Church,  Hamburg  (Bach 
came  to  Hamburg  several  times  to  hear  Reinken  play  and 
to  learn  his  style);  Samuel  Scheldt  (1587-1654),  organist 
at  Halle.    Some  of  their  compositions  are  accessible. 


JOHANN   PetEE  SwEEUNCK. 


Other  famous  organists  of  this  period  were  Johann 
Pachelbel  (1653-1706),  located  at  Nuremberg  (Bach  studied 
his  works  as  a  lad)  ;  Dietrich  Buxtehude  (1637- 1707),  or- 
ganist at  Liibeck  for  thirty-nine  years.  One  of  the  most 
important  names  of  this  period  of  development  is  that  of 
Johann  Joseph  Fux  (1660-1741).  His  "Gradus  ad  Parnas- 
siim,"  published  in  1725,  a  treatise  on  counterpoint  based 
on  the  practice  of  the  great  masters,  played  an  important 
part  in  the  training  of  Haydn,  Mozart  and  Beethoven. 


£64  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

English  Organists. — In  the  history  of  EngHsh  organ  play- 
ing, the  first  great  name  to  engage  Our  attention  is  that 
of  Thomas  Tallys,  born  about  1520.  lie  is  called  the 
"Father  of  English  church  music."  He  served  under 
Henry  VHI,  Edward  VI,  Queen  Alary  and  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, as  organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  English  organists  of 
distinction  contemporary  with  and  succeeding  Tallys  were 
John  Merbecke,  Richard  Farrant,  William  Byrd,  John  Bull, 
Thomas  Morley,  Orlando  Gibbons  (a  contemporary  of  Fresco- 
baldi), Matthew  Locke^John  Blow  and  Henry  Purcell.  The 
last  mentioned,  born  in  1658,  became  organist  of  West- 
minster Abbey  in  1680.  The  name  of  Purcell  is  one  of  the 
strongest  in  the  history  of  English  music.  It  was  his  am- 
bition to  found  a  distinctive  school  of  English  composition. 
Although  not  successful  in  this,  he  made  a  lasting  impres- 
sion on  English  church  music  and  produced  many  charming 
secular  works.  It  is  on  record  that  he  stood  high  in  the 
estimation  of  his  European  contemporaries. 

Culmination  in  Bach  and  Handel.  —  The  Polyphonic 
Period  culminated  in  Bach  and  Handel,  both  born  in  1685. 
These  two,  who  never  met,  and  who  worked  upon  dis- 
similar lines,  were  the  most  famous  organists  of  their  day, 
in  addition  to  their  greatness  in  composition. 

The  Organ  and  Polyphonic  Music. — Bach  must  be  re- 
garded as  the  source  of  modern  organ  composition  and 
playing.  In  him  polyphonic  composition  attained  its  high- 
est perfection  and  the  organ  stands  as  the  centre  of  the 
Polyphonic  school.  The  development  of  the  Opera  and 
its  influence  towards  a  freer  style  in  vocal  and  instru- 
mental composition  and  the  tendency  of  instrumental  music 
to  develop  along  harmonic  lines  had  the  eflPect  of  relegating 
polyphonic  music  to  the  Church  with  the  organ  as  its 
chief  vehicle.  It  is  only  of  comparatively  recent  years  that 
the  organ  has  become  a  concert  instrument.  Bach's  treat- 
ment of  the  instrument  serves  as  a  model  for  the  composer« 
of  all  time  and  the  study  of  his  works  is  indispensable  to 
the  development  of  technical  command  of  the  organ  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  true  organ  style.    Handel's  permanent 


THE    CHORALE    IN    ORGAN    MUSIC.  165 

contribution  to  organ  literature  consists  of  sets  of  Concertos. 
These  concertos,  a  number  of  which  are  still  played  and 
admired,  excited  the  enthusiasm  of  Sir  John  Hawkins,  who 
gives  a  glowing  account  of  them  in  his  history.  Bach  was 
appointed  Cantor  at  the  .S7.  Thomas  Schiilc,  Leipzig,  in  1723, 
and  it  was  here  that  much  of  his  greatest  work  was  accom- 
plished. In  addition  to  his  duties  at  the  school,  he  directed 
the  music  in  the  Churches  of  St.  Thomas  and  St.  Nicholas. 
As  to  the  relative  superiority  of  Bach  and  Handel  as  organ- 
ists, contemporary  opinion  seems  to  have  differed  widely. 
Each  undoubtedly  had  a  style  of  his  own  as  shown  in 
his  published  compositions.  Each  excelled  in  improvisa- 
tion. 

The  Chorale  in  Protestant  Organ  Music. — In  addition  to 
his  incomparable  preludes  and  fugues,  toccatas,  fantasias 
and  pieces  in  the  larger  forms.  Bach  made  the  polyphonic 
treatment  of  the  chorale  an  art  peculiarly  his  own.  In  fact, 
the  German  style  of  organ  playing  may  be  said  to  have 
developed  from  the  chorale  and  from  the  music  of  the 
Reformation.  This  furnished  a  fresher  and  very  different 
source  of  inspiration  from  the  Gregorian  chant  which  had 
been  handled  so  effectively  by  Frescobaldi  and  his  Italian 
successors. 

Marchand. — One  of  the  most  renowned  of  early  French 
organists  was  Louis  Marchand  (1671-1732).  In  1717,  while 
living  under  banishment  in  Dresden,  he  was  to  have  entered 
into  a  trial  of  skill  with  Bach,  but  lost  courage  and  de- 
parted on  the  morning  of  the  appointed  day.  A  certain 
triviality  has  at  times  characterized  the  French  school  of 
organ  music,  undoubtedly  a  reflection  of  the  prevailing 
style  and  taste  in  other  branches  of  musical  composition. 
Of  later  years,  however,  a  more  serious  and  exalted  style 
has  developed. 

The  German  School. — To  return  to  the  German  organists. 
A  name  familiar  to  all  students  of  the  organ  is  that  of 
Rinck.  Johann  C.  H.  Rinck  (1770-1846)  was  a  pupil  of 
Kittel,  who  in  turn  was  a  pupil  of  J.  S.  Bach.  Rinck's 
reputation  is  based  largely  on  his  "Practical  Organ  School," 


l66  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

a  work  still  in  use.  Another  name  of  importance  is  that 
of  Johann  Gottlob  Schneider  (1789-1864).  He  has  had  the 
reputation  of  being  one  of  the  greatest  German  organists 
since  the  time  of  Bach.  Of  the  great  composers  since 
Bach,  Mendelssohn  stands  conspicuous  as  an  organist  and 
composer  of  organ  music.  Haydn,  Mozart  and  Beethoven, 
although  occasionally  using  the  organ  in  their  scores,  did 
not  compose  for  the  instrument.  Mendelssohn  developed 
a  decided  fondness  for  the  organ,  which  he  played  admir- 
ably. His  six  sonatas  and  three  preludes  and  fugues  are 
masterpieces.  Among  the  representative  German  organists 
and  composers  should  be  mentioned:  Adolph  Hesse  (1809- 
1863),  author  of  the  "Practical  Organist"  and  a  prolific 
composer;  Karl  August  Haupt  (1810-1891),  a  celebrated 
teacher,  numbering  among  his  many  pupils  from  all  coun- 
tries such  prominent  American  organists  as  Eugene  Thayer, 
Clarence  Eddy  and  J.  K,  Paine;  Carl  Ludwig  Thiele  (1816- 
1848)  composer  of  some  of  the  most  difiicult  known  works 
for  the  organ;  Gustav  Merkel  (1827-1885),  a  prolific  com- 
poser, whose  sonatas  are  numbered  among  the  standard 
works  for  the  instrument;  J.  G.  Kheinberger  (1837-1901), 
one  of  the  finest  organists  and  best  teachers  of  his  time 
and  a  composer  of  great  ability,  whose  twenty  sonatas  form 
a  permanent  addition  to  the  best  organ  literature.  A  num- 
ber of  American  organists  were  among  his  pupils. 

The  French  School. — Prominent  among  organists  of  the 
French  school  in  the  19th  century  may  be  mentioned: 
L.  J.  A.  Lefebure-Wely  (1817-1869)  and  Antoine  Eduard 
Batiste  (1820-1876).  The  works  of  both  these  organists 
are  still  widely  played  and  have  won  much  popularity. 
Wely  has  been  called  the  "Auber  of  the  organ."  His  works 
display  fertility  of  melodic  invention  and  a  piquancy  of 
harmonic  treatment,  but  are  entirely  lacking  in  the  poly- 
phonic element.  Much  the  same  may  be  said  of  Batiste, 
who  was  a  fine  player  and  teacher,  and  who  equalled  Wely 
in  tunefulness  but  not  in  musicianship.  Nicholas  Jacques 
Lenunens  (1823-81),  a  great  player  (especially  of  Bach) 
and  author  of  the  celebrated  "Ecole  d'Orgue"  may  be  said 


THE    ENGLISH    SCHOOL.  I67 

to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern  French  school. 
Conspicuous  among  his  successors  have  been  :  Camille  Saint- 

Saens   (1835 )>  ^  most  versatile  musician  and  a  noted 

organist;    Theodore  Dubois    (1837 ),  Theodore  Salome 

(1834 )    and  Felix  Alexandre  Guilmant    (1837 ). 

Guilmant,  one  of  the  most  noted  organists  and  composers 
of  the  present  day,  was  a  favorite  pupil  of  Lemmens.  He 
has  been  one  of  the  most  prolific  composers  since  the  time 
of  Bach,  is  a  master  of  all  the  resources  of  the  modern 
organ,  and  has  a  fertility  of  invention  and  a  fluent  com- 
mand of  contrapuntal  resources.     Another  eminent  French 

organist  is  C.  M.  Widor   (1845 ),  also  a  composer  of 

distinction.  A  powerful  influence  was  exerted  on  modern 
organ  music,  as  well  as  general  composition,  by  the  emi- 
nent organist  and  composer,  Cesar  Franck  (1822-1890), who 
was,  for  a  number  of  years,  in  charge  of  the  organ  class 
at  the  Paris  Conservatoire. 

The    Italian    School.  —  Among    recent    Italian    organists 

Filippo  Capocci  (1840-1898)  and  Enrico  Bossi  (1861 ) 

are  worthy  of  mention.  Both  are  splendid  organists  and 
prolific  composers.  They  are  leaders  in  the  revival  of  good 
organ  playing  in  Italy,  where  a  determined  effort  is  being 
made  to  restore  the  art  to  its  former  supremacy. 

The  English  School. — England  has  furnished  a  long  line 
of  19th  century  organists  of  ability,  prominent  among  whom 
are:  Sir  John  Goss  (1800-1880),  Henry  Smart  (1813-1879), 
E.  J.  Hopkins  (1818-1901),  S.  S.  Wesley  (1810-1876),  Dr. 
Wm.  Spark  (1825-1897).  Foremost  among  English  organ- 
ists stands  the  name  of  Wm.  T.  Best  (1826-1897).  He  was 
one  of  the  most  famous  concert  organists  of  his  time,  but 
is  best  known  to  organ  students  by  his  "Arrangements 
from  the  Scores  of  the  Great  Masters,"  in  which  he  demon- 
strated that  the  organ  is  in  itself  capable  of  reproducing 
certain  orchestral  effects  without  transcending  its  proper 
functions  or  descending  to  trickery.  "The  Organ,"  by 
Sir  John  Stainer  (1840-1901),  is  one  of  the  most  widely 
used  elementary  works  for  instruction  in  organ  playing. 
Dr.   Stainer  was  the  successor  of   Sir  John  Goss,  at   St. 


l68  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

Paul's,  London,  and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Music  at 
Oxford  University  in  1889.  Frederic  Archer  (1838-1901) 
has  been  considered  one  of  the  greatest  of  organ  players. 
After  a  successful  career  in  England,  he  came  to  America 
ir  1880.  He  did  much  towards  popularizing  and  elevating 
the  art  of  organ  playing  in  this  country.  Prominent  among 
contemporary  English  organists  stands  Edwin  H.   Lemare 

(1865 ),  who  succeeded   Frederic  Archer  as   organist 

of  Carnegie  Hall,  Pittsburg,  in  1902.  He  is  a  skilful 
virtuoso,  a  composer  of  originality,  and  a  leading  represen- 
tative of  the  modern  English  school. 

Modern  Organ  Music. — Organ  playing  and  composition 
have  kept  pace  with  the  mechanical  and  artistic  evolution 
of  the  instrument,  and  the  lines  between  the  various  schools 
are  becoming  less  closely  drawn.  The  tendency  of  build- 
ers to  imitate  orchestral  tone  and  effects  has  had  influence 
on  composers  and  players  alike.  This  tendency  is  less 
noticeable  in  the  works  of  the  German  school,  where  a 
modified  polyphony  still  flourishes,  based  on  the  principle  of 
the  classic  treatment  of  the  chorale  and  growing  out  of  the 
music  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  organ  compositions 
of  the  modern  French  school  are  characterized  by  grace, 
refinement  and  originality,  coupled  with  a  certain  dignity 
and  elegance.  They  combine  free  harmonic  treatment  and 
modern  polyphony,  together  with  certain  ornate  character- 
istics, growing  out  of  the  elaborate  ceremonial  music  of 
the  Latin  Church,  and  bringing  into  play  all  the  resources 
of  tone  color  and  expressive  treatment  of  the  modern  in- 
strument. Much  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  modern  Eng- 
lish school,  which  nevertheless  still  shows  traces  of  the 
early  English  style,  based  on  the  dignity  and  purity  of 
cathedral  use  and  tradition.  The  orchestral  tendency,  both 
in  composition  for  the  organ  and  in  the  transcription  of 
orchestral  works  for  the  instrument,  shows  itself  more  or 
less  in  all  schools,  and  the  organ,  in  addition  to  its  position 
in  the  church,  is  becoming  more  and  more  a  concert  instru- 
ment. The  compositions  of  the  American  organists  reflect, 
in  a  measure,  the  characteristics  of  the  schools  in  which 


LESSON    HELPS.  169 

they  have  been  trained,  and  in  particular  show  traces  of  the 
styles  of  the  masters  with  whom  they  have  chiefly  studied.^ 

References. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians.  Articles 
on  the  Organ,  and  Organists  mentioned  in  this  lesson, 

Williams. — Story  of  the  Organ. 

Lahee. — The  Organ  and  its  Masters. 

Matthews.^ — Handbook  of  the  Organ. 

Pirro. — J.  S.  Bach :   The  Organist  and  His  Works. 

Audsley,  G.  A. — The  Art  of  Organ  Building,  2  vols. 
Questions. 

In  what  early  instrument  is  the  germ  of  the  organ  found  ? 
Describe  its  gradual  development. 

Describe  the  general  character  of  the  early  organs. 

Describe  the   various   mechanical   improvements. 

When  and  by  whom  were  pedals  introduced? 

Mention  some  of  the  early  organists. 

In  whom  did  the  Polyphonic  Period  culminate?  Who  is 
the  source  of  modern  organ  composition  and  playing? 

Mention  some  German  organists  since  the  time  of  Bach. 

Mention  some  prominent  French  and  English  organists 
of  the    19th   century. 

Describe  the  modern  tendencies  in  organ  composition. 

Suggestions  for  a  Review  of  Lessons  VIII  to  XVI. 

Get  a  clear  idea  of  the  period,  which  includes  the  years 
between  iioo  and  the  death  of  Palestrina  in  1594,  almost 
500  years.  The  lesson  on  the  organ  and  organ  playing  be- 
longs to  this  period,  chronologically,  in  part  only. 

The  difference  between  the  monophonic  and  polyphonic 
styles  must  be  clearly  appreciated  in  order  to  get  a  clear 
grasp  of  the  two  fundamental  styles  in  music.  Illustrations 
from  the  masters  are  to  be  placed  in  contrast.  Polyphony 
developed  from  melodic  principles,  the  simultaneous  sound- 
ing of  several  melodies.  Monophony  depends  upon  a  har- 
monic basis. 


^Mention  of  prominent  American  organists  and  teachers  is  made 
in  Lesson  LIX. 


170  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

Indicate  the  steps  in  the  growth  of  Polyphony. 

How  did  the  Church  contrihute? 

What  pohtical  and  other  conditions  made  Paris  the  centre 
of  Europe  in  the  12th  century? 

What  is  the  force  of  Imitation  as  a  principle  to  secure 
Unity  in  musical  composition?  How  was  it  used  by  the 
composers  of  the  Paris  school? 

What  advances  in  the  use  of  Imitation  did  the  men  of 
the  Gallo-Belgic  school  make? 

Indicate  certain  historical  events  and  name  prominent 
personages  of  the  periods  included  in  this  section. 

Why  did  the  early  English  school  exercise  so  little  in- 
fluence on  music? 

What  noted  musical  composition  is  credited  to  the  Eng- 
lish school?    What  kind  of  work  is  it? 

What  historical  periods  coincide  with  the  English  school 
as  described  in  this  section? 

Compare  the  Gallo-Belgic  and  the  Netherlands  schools. 
What  did  the  former  contribute  to  the  latter? 

What  15  the  musical  value  of  the  principle  of  the  Canon? 

Why  did  the  musical  centre  shift  respectively  from  Paris 
to  Belgium,  to  the  Netherlands  and  then  to  Italy? 

Make  a  list  of  the  composers  of  the  different  schools  of 
this  period  and  trace  the  connection  between  them. 

Give  a  sketch  of  Palestrina  and  show  his  contribution  to 
church  music. 

Describe  the  madrigal.  Compare  a  madrigal  with  a 
modern  part-song  and  note  the  difference  in  style. 

Give  the  classification  of  musical  instruments.  Examples 
in  each  class. 

Give  a  sketch  of  the  development  of  the  viol. 

What  is  the  germ  of  the  principle  of  the  organ? 

What  is  the  necessity  for  the  use  of  a  bellows? 

What  are  the  successive  steps  in  improving  the  organ? 

Mention  the  important  players   in   chronological   order. 

Classify  them  in  the  proper  schools. 

Compare  the  German,  French  and  English  schools. 


LESSON  XVII. 

The  Beginning  of  the  Opera. 

The  Renaissance. — The  Opera,  in  its  inception,  was  liter- 
ary rather  than  musical  in  nature.  It  was  a  result  of  what 
is  known  as  the  Renaissance,  so-called  because  its  most 
prominent  manifestation  in  Italy  was  a  revival  of  the  learn- 
ing of  the  ancients.  This  phase  of  the  movement  was  in- 
itiated by  Petrarch  (1304-1370),  who  devoted  his  life  to 
the  study  of  the  classical  past  of  Italy.  The  Latin  classics 
had  never  been  entirely  lost,  but  those  of  the  Greeks  had 
become  practically  extinct  during  the  dark  ages  which  fol- 
lowed the  conquest  of  the  Roman  Empire  by  the  barbarians 
of  the  North,  in  the  5th  century.  The  arts  had  been  kept 
alive  only  through  the  fostering  care  of  the  Church,  and  all 
had  taken  on  a  conventionally  ecclesiastical  character.  Edu- 
cation had  declined;  it  was  practically  confined  to  church- 
men— even  kings  and  rulers  could  barely  sign  their  names, 
while  the  people  at  large  were  sunk  in  gross  ignorance. 
The  revival  of  Latin  literature  through  the  influence  of 
Petrarch  led  to  an  interest  in  the  Greek  classics  which  soon 
became  the  engrossing  study  of  the  learned.  Diligent 
search  was  made  for  lost  and  forgotten  manuscripts ;  acad- 
emies of  learning  were  founded;  lectures  were  given  on 
Greek  philosophy.  In  the  enthusiasm  thus  created  it  was 
even  thought  that  not  only  the  arts  and  literature  of  the 
ancient  world  might  be  restored,  but  its  governmental,  so- 
cial and  political  structure  as  well. 

Scope  of  the  Renaissance.  —  The  Renaissance,  however, 
was  not  merely  literary  in  nature.  It  was  in  reality  the 
awakening  of  man  from  the  spiritual  and  intellectual  slum- 
ber which  had  bound  him  for  nearly  a  thousand  years. 
Long  before  it  was  defined  it  had  been  perceptible  in  many 

(171) 


172  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

ways.  First,  materially,  in  a  spirit  of  exploration,  of  ad- 
venture and  enterprise.  Traders  and  travelers  startled 
Europe  with  glowing  accounts  of  the  far  East;  mission- 
aries took  long  and  dangerous  voyages  in  the  hope  of  con- 
verting its  heathen  inhahitants.  An  eager  desire  for  in- 
creased commercial  facilities  w'ith  these  favored  countries 
by  means  of  a  westward  passage  brought  about  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  with  which  modern  history  may  be  said 
to  have  opened. 

With  this  extension  of  the  world's  boundaries,  the  mind 
of  man  began  to  expand  as  well.  As  he  looked  forward 
with  eager  anticipation  to  the  future,  he  studied  the  past 
with  an  eye  newly  alive  to  the  treasures  of  its  buried  cul- 
ture. Instead  of  his  former  acquiescence  in  being  one  of 
a  dull,  inert  mass,  serving  without  question  those  in  author- 
ity over  him,  he  began  to  feel  and  to  assert  his  ow-n  individ- 
uality, to  resist  the  crushing  weight  of  feudalism  which 
had  hitherto  oppressed  him.  Freedom  of  intellect,  of  con- 
science, of  science,  of  art,  was  in  the  air. 

The  effect  of  this  transition  from  medievalism  toward 
modern  liberty  of  thought  and  action  varied  with  different 
nationalities.  In  northern  nations  it  took  the  direction  of 
rebellion  against  prevailing  religious  and  political  condi- 
tions, for  example,  in  Germany  and  England.  Italy,  how- 
ever, remained  steadfast  in  religion  and  government ;  the 
revolt  was  against  traditions  in  matters  of  art  and  litera- 
ture. Roman  law  and  Greek  philosophy  were  exhumed ; 
the  classics  were  zealously  studied  for  standards  of  taste 
and  culture. 

Music  of  the  Ancients. — Notwithstanding  this  research, 
no  trace  was  found  of  the  music  actually  in  use  among  the 
ancients.  From  the  evanescent  nature  of  the  art  and  the 
total  lack  of  examples,  the  elaborate  descriptions  of  its 
complicated  system  of  scales  and  modes  given  by  Greek 
philosophers  failed  to  yield  a  trustworthy  clue  to  its  real 
character. 

It  was  known,  however,  that  the  drama,  owing  to  the 
enormous  proportions  of  the  amphitheatre  in  which  it  was 


EARLY    MUSIC    CHIEFLY    CHORAL.  I73 

performed,  was  vinsically  declaimed,  and  that  the  voices  of 
the  actors  and  chorns  were  sustained  by  lyres  and  flutes. 
Thus,  in  the  Greek  tragedy  we  find  the  principal  features 
of  the  modern  opera — scenery,  dramatic  action,  solo  and 
choral  singing,  the  orchestra.  It  was  also  known  that  in 
the  music  of  the  Greeks  the  word  was  the  governing  prin- 
ciple;  that  there  was  no  independent  instrumental  music 
— nor  was  there  elsewhere  for  many  centuries  afterward. 
The  tone  was  regarded  only  as  a  means  of  heightening  the 
effect  of  the  poetry;  the  succession  of  long  and  short  syl- 
lables dictated  both  rhythm  and  melody.  Of  harmony  in 
the  modern  sense  of  the  term,  there  was  none;  instruments 
and  voices  alike  were  in  unison. 

Music  Chiefly  Choral. — In  the  i6th  century,  Florence  was 
the  centre  of  the  enthusiasm  for  Greek  culture.  She  and 
her '  sister-cities  in  the  north  of  Italy  were  the  arbiters  in 
matters  of  taste,  of  learning  and  erudition.  There,  toward 
the  end  of  the  century,  a  small  group  of  scholars  and  musi- 
cians, known  as  the  Camerata  (Chamber),  meeting  at  the 
house  of  Count  Bardi,  discussed  the  possibility  of  repro- 
ducing the  musical  declamation  of  Greek  tragedy.  The 
time  was  ripe  for  such  an  experiment.  The  polyphonic 
school  had  reached  its  climax  in  the  intricate  works  of  di 
Lasso  (1520-1594)  and  Palestrina  (1514-1594).  Though 
admirably  suited  to  the  Church,  the  contrapuntal  style  of 
these  great  composers  was  manifestly  unfit  for  dramatic 
purposes ;  it  could  voice  the  aspirations  of  a  body  of  wor- 
shipers swayed  by  a  common  belief,  but  could  not  express 
individual  feeling.  No  voice  was  more  important  than  an- 
other, all  progressed  according  to  canonic  law,  their  com- 
plex intertwining  practically  destroying  the  essentially  sec- 
ular elements  of  accent  and  rhythm.  It  was,  in  short,  the 
embodiment  in  music  of  the  medievalism  which  had  so  long 
controlled  Church  and  State. 

Thus  far  the  spirit  of  emancipation  which  had  produced 
such  great  results  in  the  other  arts  and  in  politics  elsewhere 
had  touched  music  but  lightly.  Attempts  had  been  made  to 
bjL'eak  the  restraints  of  contrapuntalism,  but  there  was  a  total 


174  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

ignorance  as  to  what  steps  would  prove  most  effective  in 
reaching  that  end,  and  nothing  definite  had  been  acconi- 
pHshed.  Aside  from  the  Folk-song,  which  was  ignored  by 
musicians  save  only  as  it  served  as  Cantus  I' irmus  for  their 
counterpoint,  there  was  no  music  for  the  solo  voice ;  it  was 
conceived  solely  from  a  choral  standpoint. 

The  Recitative. — Their  dissatisfaction  with  the  school 
of  music  then  in  vogue  and  the  impossibility  of  adapting 
it  to  their  purpose  led  to  various  experiments  by  this  band 
of  enthusiasts  to  discover  the  principles  upon  which  the 
Greeks  had  founded  the  musical  declamation  employed  in 
their  tragedies.  They  argued  that  it  must  have  followed 
as  closely  as  possible  the  inflections  of  the  voice  in  speak- 
ing; therefore  they  made  this  their  study.  Thus  originated 
the  Recitative,  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  lyric  drama, 
which,  though  using  the  definite  pitches  of  the  musical 
scale,  reproduces  in  its  progressions  and  cadences  the  char- 
acteristic but  intensified  effect  of  an  oratorical  delivery  of 
the  text.  It  was  the  exact  contrary  of  the  music  of  the 
age  in  which  the  word  counted  for  almost  nothing,  the  art 
of  combining  independent  voices  and  of  playing  them  off 
one  against  the  other  for  everything. 

The  Cantata. — The  first  result  of  their  efforts  was  the 
Cantata  (from  cantare,  to  sing),  meaning  a  composition  for 
the  voice  in  contradistinction  to  the  Sonata  (from  sonare, 
to  sound),  which  was  applied  to  one  for  instruments.  The 
Cantata  had  but  little  in  common  with  what  is  now  under- 
stood by  the  term.  It  was  a  recitation  on  musical  intervals 
for  a  single  voice  accompanied  by  but  one  instrument.  Any- 
thing like  a  formal  melody  was  carefully  avoided,  and  the 
accompaniment,  generally  played  on  the  lute,  was  of  the 
most  unpretending  character.  The  first  of  these  cantatas 
was  composed  by  Vincenzo  Galilei,  the  father  of  the  cele- 
brated astronomer,  on  the  tragic  fate  of  Count  Ugolino,  as 
related  by  Dante  in  the  Inferno.  This,  therefore,  was  the 
Urst  art-song  ever  composed.  Unfortunately,  it  has  been 
lost ;  but  contemporary  accounts  tell  of  the  profound  im- 
pression it  created.     Other  cantatas  were  written  and  sung 


THE    FIRST    OPERA.  175 

by  Giulio  Caccini  (1550-1618),  a  skilled  and  an  admirable 
lutist  as  well,  and  all  awakened  the  utmost  enthusiasm 
among  the  little  company. 

These  works  were  known  as  Nuove  Musiche  (new  music) 
and  such  as  have  survived  are,  in  general,  painfully  thin 
and  crude  to  modern  ears.  When  compared  with  the  rich 
polyphony  of  the  prevailing  Church  style  they  seem  at  the 
first  blush  to  indicate  retrogression.  Progress,  however, 
seldom  advances  in  a  direct  line;  it  generally  moves  by 
spirals  which  at  times  apparently  retreat  only  to  mount  the 
higher  at  the  succeeding  curve.  These  dull  recitatives  bore 
the  germ  of  emancipation  from  the  scholastic  laws  which 
had  heretofore  prevented  music  from"  expressing  individual 
emotion ;  they  typify  the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance  and  are 
the  foundation  of  the  art  as  we  now  know  it. 

The  First  Opera. — Another  of  the  number,  Jacopo  Peri 
(1561-1633),  also  a  musician,  took  the  next  step  by  com- 
posing music  of  the  same  style  to  a  drama,  the  Dafne 
(Daphne)  of  the  poet  Rinuccini,  who  was  the  life  and 
soul  of  this  attempt  to  revive  the  lost  declamation  of  the 
Greeks.  This  was  performed  privately  in  1597  at  the  Corsi 
Palace,  and  produced  so  strong  an  impression  that  it  was 
repeated  a  number  of  times  at  the  Carnival  seasons  of  the 
succeeding  years.  In  1600,  Peri  was  invited  to  compose  a 
similar  work  for  the  marriage  festivities  of  Henry  IV  of 
France  and  Maria  di  Medici.  This  was  Euridice,  also  writ- 
ten by  Rinuccini,  which  bears  the  distinction  of  being  the 
first  opera  to  receive  public  performance,  and  thus  intro- 
ducing the  new  art-form  to  the  world  at  large.  The  score 
of  Dafne  has  been  lost,  but  that  of  Euridice  still  exists. 

It  was  then  known  as  a  music  drama  (melo  dramma  or 
dramma  per  la  musica) ;  the  term  opera  (abbreviation  for 
opera  in  musica,  that  is,  musical  work)  did  not  come  into 
use  until  the  middle  of  the  century.  The  orchestra,  which 
was  played  behind  the  scenes,  consisted  of  a  harpsichord, 
two  lutes  and  a  bass-viol.  In  addition,  three  lutes  played  a 
short  ritorneJlo  (interlude)  in  one  scene.  With  this  ex- 
ception, the  instruments  were  used  merely  to  support  the 


176 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


voice ;  the  tonality  was  almost  exclusively  minor,  and  the 
harmony  of  the  simplest.  It  is  thought  that  Peri  sang  the 
part  of  Orpheus  and  that  Francesca  Caccini,  daughter  of 
the  composer  and  one  of  the  most  gifted  singers  of  the  day, 
sang  Euridice. 


FtF=f= 

y     J\_h 

-#-w^ R^^^* 

r^. 

=r 

— f- 

— ( — fi 

bo 

«hi)  or 

4= 

4= 
dor 

vol 

S 

si 

in. 

lor 

V^    1     1 

4 r 

k=i 

-t- 

' &~ 

-B> 

0 

1 — 



L-BJ-J 

Pabt  of  an  Air  by  Caccini. 


Caccini  claimed  the  new  style  as  his  invention,  and  it  is 
certain  that  parts  of  Euridice  were  composed  by  him,  though 
Peri's  name  alone  appears  on  the  title  page  of  the  published 
work.  Emulating  the  success  of  his  colleague,  the  former 
soon  set  the  same  drama  to  music. 

Characteristics  of  the  Early  Opera. — The  two  settings  are 
so  similar  that  one  might  almost  be  taken  for  the  other. 
Both  display  the  same  characteristics.  Of  dramatic  feel- 
ing or  characterization  as  understood  at  the  present  day 
there  is  no  sign;  development  of  musical  thought,  none 
whatever ;  a  dreary  waste  of  recitatives  is  but  slightly  re- 
lieved by  the  occasional  flourishes  (giri  e  gruppi,  that  is, 
runs  and  turns)  allowed  the  singers  by  the  taste  of  the  times. 
The  choruses,  however,  which  are  introduced  freely,  serve 
to  vary  the  monotony  somewhat.  They  exhibit  a  singular 
mingling  of  the  old  and  new  styles,  natural  under  the  cir- 
cumstances. The  voices  sing  either  in  a  recitative-like 
unison,  or  begin  in  fugato,  and  later  move  in  simple  har- 
monic progression.  Their  distaste  for  the  contrapuntal 
style  led  these  reformers  to  reject  it  so  far  as  they  could. 


THE   FLORENTINE   SCHOOL.  177 

Its  appearance  at  all  is  clue  to  the  fact  that  no  otiicr  mode 
of  writing  for  a  numher  of  voices  had  as  yet  been  devised 
— a  strictly  harmonic  treatment  had  not  been  thought  of. 
Since,  then,  they  were  at  a  loss  as  to  the  management  of 
choral  masses,  they  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  in  part 
to  old  methods. 

Another  name  associated  with  the  Florentine  school  de- 
serving mention  is  that  of  Marco  da  Gagliano,  a  priest  who 
soon  took  the  lead  in  the  new  movement.  His  first  opera 
was  Dafne  (1607),  composed  to  Rinuccini's  drama  which 
had  already  served  Peri ;  it  was  a  common  practice  in  those 
days  for  composers  to  use  the  same  text.  As  a  scholar  and 
musician,  Gagliano  was  superior  to  his  predecessors.  He 
shows  a  greater  warmth  of  feeling  and  a  tendency  toward 
melody  which  they  considered  as  a  lowering  of  their  ideals. 

The  Florentine  School. — One  particular  characteristic  of 
the  Florentine  school  was  a  sedulous  avoidance  of  anything 
like  extended  melody  or  definite  form.  To  the  composers 
of  this  school,  music  v/as  not  an  end  in  itself ;  it  was  sub- 
ordinate to  the  distinct,  impassioned  declamation  of  the 
poet's  verses.  They  held  that  any  independent  development 
of  musical  thought  was  a  weakness ;  that  it  tended  to  dis- 
tract the  attention  of  the  hearer  from  the  drama,  and  to  in- 
terfere with  its  logical  continuity.  The  predominant  in- 
fluence was  that  of  the  scholar,  not  of  the  musician.  This 
was  to  be  expected  from  the  character  of  the  little  coterie 
interested  in  the  new  art-form.  The  majority  were  wealthy 
amateurs,  zealous  students  of  the  classics  and  aflame  with 
the  desire  for  the  actual  revival  of  the  Greek  tragedy.  Peri 
and  Caccini  were  the  only  musicians  and  they  were  strongly 
averse  to  the  contrapuntal  music  of  the  day.  Its  persistently 
ecclesiastical  eflfect  debarred  it  from  expressing  the  personal 
feeling  which  was  the  object  of  their  research.  In  the  effort 
to  escape  its  ban,  they  unwittingly  emancipated  their  art 
from  the  control  of  the  Church,  and  made  it  accessible  to 
mankind  in  general.  This,  therefore,  is  the  great  service 
of  the  Florentine  reformers :  the  establishment  of  a  purely 
secular  school  of  music  susceptible  of  indefinite  development. 


178  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

Making  allowance  for  the  vast  difference  in  means  due 
to  the  practical  creation  of  independent  instrumental  music 
since  the  17th  century,  their  practice  was  precisely  the  same 
as  that  of  the  modern  composer  who  writes  a  music  drama 
and  uses  the  same  term  to  define  his  work.  When  Dafne 
and  Enridice  first  saw  the  light,  however,  there  was  neither 
knowledge  nor  experience  to  point  the  way ;  it  was  found 
only  after  a  slow  and  laborious  process  of  experimentation, 
involving  the  acceptance  of  much  that  was  rejected  after 
having  served  its  turn.  Though  Peri  and  Caccini  with 
their  confreres  did  not  succeed  in  the  end  they  had  in  view, 
they  accomplished  far  more  by  originating  the  Opera,  the 
point  of  departure  for  the  whole  modern  art  of  music. 

References. 

Symonds. — The  Renaissance  in  Italy. 
Apthorp. — Opera  Past  and  Present. 

Grove. — Dictionary   of   Music   and   Musicians.     Articles, 
on  subjects  mentioned  in  this  and  following  lessons. 
Streatfeild. — The  Opera. 
These  general  works  serve  for  other  lessons  on  the  opera. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

What  was  the  Renaissance? 

What  was  the  effect  of  this  idea  on  music? 

What  was  the  origin  of  Recitative? 

What  was  understood  by  Nuove  Musichef 

Who  wrote  the  first  opera?  What  term  was  applied  tj 
this  kind  of  musical  work? 

Give  a  description  of  the  early  opera. 

Give  an  account  of  the  Florentine  school  and  their  f^m- 
damental  ideas. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  Opera  is  practically  the  be- 
ginning of  a  century,  the  17th,  it  should  not  be  a  difficult 
matter  to  keep  this  date  in  mind.  It  therefore  antedates 
the  settlement  at  Jamestown,  Va.,  by  a  few  years,  making 
the  beginning  of  American  history  under  English  auspices 
and  the  Opera  coincide. 


LESSON  XVIII. 

The  Oratorio.     Development  of  the  Opera. 

The  First  Oratorio. — The  novelty  of  the  new  style,  which 
was  called  the  stilo  rapprescntativo  (representative  style), 
the  vigor  and  freedom  it  gave  to  an  impressive  delivery  of 
the  text,  aroused  universal  attention.  Among  the  composers 
who  essayed  it  was  Emilio  del  Cavaliere  (1550- 1599).  By 
applying  it  to  a  sacred  subject,  he  originated  the  Oratorio. 
Roman  by  birth,  he  had  passed  part  of  his  life  in  Florence, 
and  though  not  a  member  of  the  Camerata,  was  familiar 
with  its  aims  and  practice. 

The  germ  both  of  the  Opera  and  Oratorio  is  to  be  found 
in  the  Miracle  Plays  or  so-called  Mysteries  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  These  were  dramatic  representations  of  Bible  scenes 
or  religions  allegories  by  means  of  which  a  populace  unable 
to  read  was  taught  the  great  truths  of  sacred  history. 
Cavaliere's  oratorio,  La  Rappresentadone  di  Anima  e  di 
Corpo  (The  Representation  of  Soul  and  Body),  was  given 
in  1600  in  Rome,  at  the  Oratory  of  the  Church  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Vallicella — hence  its  name. 


Passage  from  Cavaliere's  Oratorio. 

Its  Characteristics. — Save  for  the  nature  of  the  subject, 
there  was  no  apparent  difference  between  it  and  an  opera. 
The  allegorical  characters  taking  part  appeared  in  costume 
and  in  action.  The  score  even  gives  directions  by  which  it 
may  be  concluded  with  a  dance  if  so  desired.  By  this,  how- 
ever, dignified  and  stately  movements  are  understood,  in 
nowise  resembling  the  rapid  dance  of  modern  times.  The 
composer  in  his   instructions   for  performance,   which   are 

(179) 


l80  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

unusually  full  and  complete,  lays  great  stress  upon  an  ex- 
pressive delivery  of  the  text,  and  the  swelling  and  diminish- 
ing of  the  tones  by  the  singers.  In  vigor  and  characteriza- 
tion it  far  surpasses  Peri's  and  Caccini's  operas.  Cavaliere's 
death,  which  occurred  ten  months  before  the  production  of 
his  work,  and  the  great  popularity  of  the  Opera,  put  a  stop 
to  the  immediate  development  of  the  Oratorio ;  that  was 
reserved  for  Carissimi  a  generation  later. 

Monteverde. — The  task  of  taking  the  opera  from  the  ex- 
perimental stage  and  of  placing  it  on  the  artistic  foundation 
which  it  now  occupies  was  accomplished  by  Claudio  Monte- 
verde (1568-1643),  a  man  of  extraordinary  genius  and 
originality.  A  harmonist  of  surpassing  force  and  boldness, 
he  had  always  rebelled  against  the  restraints  of  the  contra- 
puntal school,  though,  unlike  Peri  and  Caccini,  he  was 
skilled  in  its  intricacies.  He  was  viol  player  in  the  band  of 
the  Duke  of  Mantua,  and  had  composed  masses  and  madri- 
gals, many  of  which  were  severely  criticised  by  the  pedants 
of  the  day.  He  joined  definite  issue  with  them  in  his  free- 
dom of  treating  dissonances,  the  distinguishing  feature  of 
modern  harmony.  Heretofore,  sevenths,  ninths,  augmented 
fourths  and  the  like  had  never  been  heard  without  prepara- 
tion. Monteverde,  however,  introduced  them  without  re- 
gard to  this  restriction,  little  heeding  the  anathemas  heaped 
upon  his  head  by  those  who  considered  his  infractions  of 
established  rules  unpardonable.  His  ardent,  restless  tem- 
perament, seeking  novel  modes  of  expression,  often  led  to 
wild  and  extravagant  combinations  which  even  today  ap- 
pear harsh  and  forced.  At  that  time  they  must  have  seemed 
wilful  attempts  at  outraging  the  ear  and  the  sense  of  har- 
monic propriety.  These  innovations,  however,  are  the  cor- 
nerstone of  modern  harmony;  of  this  as  well  as  of  the 
opera,  Monteverde  is  the  real  founder.  What  are  defects 
in  his  church  music  are  excellences  in  his  operas.  The  dis- 
cords which  disturb  the  serenity  of  a  religious  atmosphere 
are  admirably  fitted  to  produce  dramatic  effects  and  power- 
ful climaxes.  Monteverde  belonged  to  the  stage  as  his 
great  contemporary,  Palestrina,  belonged  to  the  church. 


MONTEVERDE  S    FIRST   OPERA. 


l8l 


Position  of  Music  in  the  17th  Century.  —  The  interest 
which  the  success  of  the  Florentine  composers  would  have 
for  a  man  thus  gifted  can  be  readily  imagined.  Yet  he 
was  obliged  to  wait  a  number  of  years  for  an  opportunity 
to  emulate  their  achievements.  Music  then  was  the  especial 
pastime  of  the  great;  it  was  part  of  the  state  with  which 
they  surrounded  themselves.  Almost  all  titled  and  wealthy 
families  had  their  own  bands  of  musicians  and  choirs  of 
singers.  These  assisted  in  their  private  chapels  and  lent 
additional  eclat  to  seasons  of  festivity.  Concerts  and  operas 
were  given  only  at  court  or  in  the  palaces  of  noblemen ; 
public  halls  for  any  kind  of  musical  occasion  were  unknown. 
A  musician  or  composer  could  make  his  way  only  by  at- 
taching himself  to  a  noble  house  or  by  securing  a  patron  in 
court  circles.  Dafne  and  Euridice  were  made  possible 
through  the  interest  and  protection  of  Count  Bardi  and 
Count  Corsi.  The  opera  was  also  attended  with  great  ex- 
pense. The  taste  of  the  times  demanded  an  enormous  out- 
lay for  mounting — costumes,  scenery,  decorations ;  only  the 
extremely  wealthy  could  afford  it,  and  they  reserved  it  for 
occasions  of  especial  importance. 

Monteverde's  First  Opera. — In  1607,  the  marriage  of  Mar- 
garet of  Savoy  to  Francesco  Gonzaga,  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Mantua,  opened  the  way  for  Monteverde's  first  opera, 
Arianna  (Ariadne),  which  was  received  with  the  utmost 
euthusiasm.  Unfortunately,  but  a  fragment  of  it  remains, 
Ariadne's  lament  after  her  desertion  by  Theseus,  the  most 


ABIAD^"E's  Lament. 


I82 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 


celebrated  opera  air  ever  written.  In  its  unprepared  dis- 
cords of  the  harshest  nature,  in  the  poignant  expression  of 
grief  and  despair  so  at  variance  with  the  placid  art  of  the 
day,  this  shows  how,  by  a  single  stroke,  Monteverde  cut 
loose  from  all  the  traditions  of  the  past.  In  its  less  than 
a  score  of  measures  it  also  anticipates  principles  of  artistic 
structure  which  were  not  formulated  for  nearly  a  century 
later  and  which  hold  good  to  the  present  day.  It  is  said 
that  it  brought  tears  to  every  eye. 


J  J•,.^J> 


RiTOBNELLO   BY   MONTEVERDE. 


His  Second  Opera. — The  following  year  he  produced  his 
second  opera,  Orfeo  (Orpheus),  so  called  to  distinguish  it 
from  Peri's  Euridice  on  the  same  subject.  Though  most  of 
Monteverde's  works  have  been  lost,  the  score  of  Orfeo  has 
been  preserved.  It  shows  a  surprising  advance  over  the 
simplicity  of  the  Florentine  operas.  First  of  all,  in  the 
great  expansion  of  the  orchestra.  This  numbers  thirty- 
seven  instruments  which  throughout  are  combined  in  groups 
and  as  a  whole  with  an  art  prefiguring  certain  effects  of 
orchestration  supposed  to  be  purely  modern.  Like  har- 
mony, instrumentation  date's  from  Monteverde.  Instead 
of  the  customary  vocal  prologue,  it  begins  with  a  Toccata 
(instrumental  prelude).  The  composer's  keen  dramatic  in- 
stinct is  shown  by  the  masterly  way  in  which  he  avoids  the 
monotony  of  his  predecessors ;  the  recitatives  are  varied 
by  the  introduction  of  ritornelli,  and  each  act  ends  with  a 
chorus  and  a  stately  passage  for  the  orchestra.  Five  years 
later,  the  most  famous  composer  of  the  day,  he  left  Mantua 
for  Venice,  where  until  his  death  he  was  director  of  music 
at  St.  Mark's. 


POPULARIZATION    OF   THE    OPERA.  183 

Monteverde's  Characteristics. — Monteverde's  greatest  ser- 
vice to  the  opera  lay  in  enlarging  the  sphere  of  the  orches- 
tra, and  in  the  initiation  of  a  thoroughly  instrumental  style 
adapted  to  the  character  of  each  instrument.  He  increased 
the  number  of  players  and  released  the  orchestra  from  the 
subordinate  position  of  being  a  mere  support  for  the  voice 
by  employing  it  to  heighten  the  dramatic  situation.  He 
originated  many  previously  unknown  effects,  among  them 
the  pizzicato  and  the  tremolo  of  the  violins  in  precisely  the 
same  form  as  used  at  present.  The  latter  so  astounded  the 
players  that  at  first  they  refused  to  attempt  it,  saying  that 
it  was  impossible.  He  endowed  the  Recitative  with  far 
greater  freedom  and  depth  of  expression;  under  his  hand 
it  lost  much  of  the  dryness  of  the  Florentine  school.  His 
manner  of  writing  for  the  voice  was  declamatory  rather 
than  melodious;  what  traces  of  definite  melody  occur  in 
his  works  are  generally  confined  to  the  instruments,  in 
which  he  curiously  anticipates  the  practice  of  latter-day 
dramatic  composers. 

Popularization  of  the  Opera. — Until  1637  the  opera  was 
restricted  to  royalty  and  the  nobility.  In  that  year  the  first 
public  opera  house  was  opened  in  Venice,  and  such  was 
the  popularity  of  the  new  amusement  that  before  the  end 
of  the  century  there  were  no  fewer  than  eleven  in  that 
city  alone,  then  with  a  population  of  about  140,000.  It 
spread  through  Italy  with  almost  like  rapidity,  bearing  in 
its  wake  an  unparalleled  development  of  the  art  of  song. 

Change  of  Character. — With  its  introduction  to  the  peo- 
ple, it  was  manifestly  impossible  for  the  opera  to  retain  its 
original  character.  So  long  as  it  was  confined  to  the  culti- 
vated, the  classical  ideals  of  its  founders  met  with  intelligent 
appreciation,  but  when  confronted  with  audiences  drawn 
from  the  masses  desirous  only  of  being  amused,  a  change 
was  inevitable.  Mythological  and  classical  subjects  were 
gradually  discarded  in  favor  of  those  involving  intrigue 
and  disguise;  comic  personages  were  introduced  to  enliven 
the  scene.  As  the  dramatic  action  was  thus  brought  nearer 
the  comprehension  of  the  unlearned,  so  the  music  departed 


184  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

from  the  oratorical  standards  of  the  early  school,  and 
showed  a  frank  tendency  toicard  melody  and  regularity  of 
form.  What  was  lost  in  elevation  of  theme,  however,  was 
made  up  by  the  human  interest  imparted  to  the  play  and  the 
consequent  endeavor  of  the  composer  to  express,  by  his 
music,  the  varying  vicissitudes  of  life.  Thus  it  gained  in 
warmth  of  feeling  and  flexibility  in  means  of  expression, 
while  the  evolution  of  rhythmic  melody  and  definite  musical 
structure  laid  the  foundation  of  the  art  as  we  now  have  it. 

The  Venetian  School. — Venice  naturally  became  the  centre 
of  an  important  development  of  the  opera.  Of  the  nu- 
merous composers  forming  the  Venetian  school,  Francesco 
Cavalli  (1600-1676)  and  Marco  Cesti  (1620-1669)  are  sec- 
ond only  in  importance  to  Monteverde.  The  first  was 
Monteverde's  pupil,  and  had  much  of  his  broad  dramatic 
style  modified  by  the  influences  of  which  we  have  just 
spoken.  Cesti  came  to  Venice  from  Rome,  where  he  had 
been  the  pupil  of  Carissimi,  and  brought  with  him  the 
smoothness  and  melodic*  flow  of  his  master,  albeit  lacking 
in  essential  power.  Other  names  of  a  later  date  are  Gio- 
vanni Legrenzi  (1625-1690),  especially  noted  for  spirit  and 
vivacity,  and  Antonio  Lotti  (1667-1740),  his  pupil,  known 
by  one  or  two  charming  airs  which  still  survive. 

Carissimi  and  the  Oratorio.  —  Giovanni  Carissimi  ( 1604- 
1674),  though  he  never  wrote  for  the  stage,  was  the  strong- 
est musical  influence  of  his  day.  He  was  an  ardent  admirer 
of  the  new  school,  and  adapted  it  in  the  form  of  oratorios 
and  cantatas  to  the  Church.  In  such  works  the  necessity 
for  form  as  regards  definite  tonality,  distinct  rhythm  and 
melodic  sequence  is  naturally  much  greater  than  in  the 
Opera  where  music  is  used  to  illustrate  the  dramatic  situa- 
tion, and  is  furthermore  elucidated  by  the  action  of  the  play. 
When  the  ear  alone  is  obliged  to  pass  judgment  there  must 
be  evidence  of  design  in  these  particulars,  else  the  effect  is 
confused  and  bewildering.  Carissimi's  musical  instinct 
grasped  this  truth.  His  oratorios  and  cantatas  show  a  log- 
ical arrangement  of  choruses  and  ensembles,  recitatives  and 
arias  combined  with  a  unity  of  effect  and  a  clearness  of 


THE   VENETIAN    SCHOOL. 


185 


characterization  heretofore  unknown.  The  choruses  in  par- 
ticular are  strongly  rhythmic  and  far  more  dramatic  than 
those  which  were  commonly  heard  on  the  stage. 


Plo.n 

r»  .  te  col 

lee,     do-l«-t 

y  da 

u 

.    le   -    It,    mon    . 

l«9 

J       J 

ff — fcf*H 

^    ^    it 

'  r    r  [   1 

tf=^ 

— 

r    'f  r  ' 

U3 

From  "Jephtha"  by  Caeissimi. 


Secularization  of  Church  Music. — This  introduction  of  the 
new  style  into  the  Church  marked  the  passing  of  the  old 
school  and  strongly  affected  methods  of  dramatic  composi- 
tion. The  public  had  never  been  in  sympathy  with  the 
austere  standards  of  the  Florentine  school  and  welcomed 
the  appearance  of  intelligible  melody  and  the  spirited 
rhythms  to  which  Carissimi  gave  the  first  direct  impulse. 
Not  only  this ;  he  fixed  the  form  that  the  music  of  the 
Church  was  to  bear  for  a  century  to  come.  This  seculariza- 
tion of  church  music  had  its  good  and  bad  sides ;  good  by 
reason  of  the  greater  freedom  and  variety  of  expression 
thus  gained ;  bad  because  of  the  bold  and  mechanical  imita- 
tion of  Carissimi's  purely  formal  details  by  his  successors, 
which  in  the  end  led  to  a  tiresome  monotony  of  style. 

Characteristics  of  the  Venetian  School. — Thus  was  taken 
the  first  step  toward  the  complete  reversal  of  the  conditions 
under  which  the  early  Opera  had  arisen.  Instead  of  the 
music's  being  subordinate  to  the  drama,  the  drama  was  soon 
to  serve  merely  as  an  excuse  for  the  music ;  the  opera  was 
destined  to  sink  to  the  level  of  a  concert  sung  in  costume; 
the  dramatic  action  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  Venetian 
school  marks  the  turning-point  in  this  direction.  The  high 
ideals  of  Monteverde  and  his  predecessors  were  gradually 
thrust  into  the  background ;  the  singer  began  to  assume 
precedence  over  the  actor ;  truth  of  expression  yielded  to 
the  fascinations  of  time  and  tune,  which  even  the  musically 
uncultivated  could  enjoy  without  bothering  their  heads  as  to 


l86  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

real  dramatic  fitness.  Closely  connected  with  these  tenden- 
cies was  the  establishment  of  a  school  of  singing  which,  if 
we  may  believe  contemporary  accounts,  surpassed  in  tech- 
nical facility  and  brilliancy  any  vocal  art  heard  either  be- 
fore or  since  that  time.  The  result  was  that  singers  finally 
regarded  the  opera  only  as  a  field  for  the  display  of  theii 
dazzling  accomplishments  and  in  this  they  were  willingly 
supported  by  a  public  eager  to  be  entertained  and  amused. 

References. 
Apthorp. — The  Opera,  Past  and  Present. 
Elson. — The  History  of  Opera. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  article  on 
Opera. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Who  wrote  the  first  oratorio?  In  what  respects  did  an 
opera  and  an  oratorio  diflFer? 

Give  an  account  of  Monteverde  and  his  innovations  in 
Opera. 

What  was  the  state  of  music  in  the  17th  century? 

Describe  Monteverde's  first  opera. 

Describe  Monteverde's  second  opera. 

What  was  understood  by  the  terms  Toccata,  Ritornello? 

What  were  Monteverde's  contributions  to  the  Opera? 

What  change  took  place  in  the  character  of  the  Opera  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  17th  century? 

Who  were  the  prominent  members  of  the  Venetian 
school  ? 

Give  an  account  of  Carissimi  and  his  work. 

Give  a  characterization  of  the  Venetian  school. 

A  short  account  of  the  Mysteries  or  Miracle  Plays  of  the 
Middle  Ages  may  be  assigned  to  a  pupil  as  special  work. 
The  Passion  Play,  still  given  today  at  Oberammergau,  Ger- 
many, is  a  relic  of  the  old-time  religious  plays. 


LESSON  XIX. 

Alessandro  Scarlatti  and  the  Neatolitan    Scttool. 

The  Neapolitan  School. — What  in  the  Venetian  school 
had  been  a  reaction  in  favor  of  form  and  melody  became  the 
estabhshed  practice  of  the  NeapoHtan  school.  Political  dis- 
turbances had  hindered  the  spread  of  the  Opera  in  southern 
Italy,  particularly  in  Naples,  but  at  the  end  of  the  17th 
century  it  assumed  the  position  formerly  occupied  by  Flor- 
ence and  Venice.  Before  this,  however,  a  strong  influence 
had  been  exerted  by  certain  composers  in  Rome,  of  whom 
Carissimi  was  first  in  importance.  Had  it  not  been  for  the 
disapproval  of  the  Church,  a  definite  Roman  school  might 
have  arisen.  Such  a  school  would  doubtless  have  been  ad- 
vantageous to  the  artistic  growth  of  the  Opera,  since  the 
public  taste  at  Rome  in  matters  of  art  was  more  serious  in 
nature  than  at  Naples.  In  1697,  public  performances  of 
opera  were  forbidden  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and 
thus  the  seat  of  further  development  was  transferred  to 
Naples  through  the  removal  thither  from  Rome  of  Ales- 
sandro Scarlatti  (1659-1725),  the  founder  of  the  Neapolitan 
school.  As  a  lad,  he  had  been  a  pupil  of  Carissimi  and  also 
probably  of  Legrenzi,  whose  influence  is  clearly  seen  in  his 
early  works. 

Alessandro  Scarlatti. — Scarlatti  invested  his  operas  with  a 
melodic  charm  and  a  symmetrical  form  which  thus  far  had 
appeared  only  sporadically.  Fascinated  by  the  freedom  of 
the  new  style,  the  early  composers  had  neglected  the  severe 
study  which  had  been  indispensable  to  mastery  in  the  Con- 
trapuntal School,  and  had  in  the  main  relied  on  natural 
gifts.     Following  the  ideal  of  Peri  and  his  associates,  their 

(187) 


i88 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


operas  were  lar<^ely  a  succession  of  recitatives  which  in  the 
end  grew  monotonous  and  wearisome;  of  form,  of  struc- 
ture, of  purely  musical  effect  they  hore  hut  slit^ht  traces. 
Scarlatti  saw  that  the  time  had  come  for  a  change  in  st\lc 
— one  that  should  comhine  the  musical  interest  of  the  old 
with  the  dramatic  spirit  of  the  new.     The  foremost  niusi- 


Alessandbo  Scarlatti. 


cian  of  his  time,  he  perceived  the  weakness  of  the  exclusively 
declamatory  opera — its  lack  of  variety  and  want  of  appeal 
to  the  public  in  general. 

His  Characteristics. — He  was  not  a  reformer.  He  lacked 
the  strong  and  rugged  dramatic  fibre  of  his  predecessor, 
Monteverde.  Scholarship;  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  mel- 
ody, pure,  polished,  refined;  a  gift  of  characterization — 
general,  not  particular,  and  always  subordinate  to  a  keen 
sense  of  beauty — are  his  distinguishing  characteristics.     He 


Scarlatti's  services  to  the  opera.  189 

fell  in  with  the  taste  of  the  day  and  devoted  his  j;^ifts,t(3 
the  production  of  works  which  should  satisfy  the  musician 
and  please  the  public.  The  solidity  of  his  early  schooling 
had  made  him  a  master  of  counterpoint,  and  this  he  applied 
in  the  construction  of  logically  worked-out  accompaniments, 
fuller,  richer  and  more  expressive  than  had  been  attempted 
by  his  less  learned  contemporaries.  In  nobility  of  concep- 
tion and  skill  in  solving  contrapuntal  problems  he  often 
shows  that  he  is  not  unworthy  the  name  of  the  "Italian 
Bach,"  as  he  is  sometimes  called.  Like  Bach,  also,  he  was 
one  of  the  most  prolific  composers  of  all  times.  He  left 
one  hundred  and  fifteen  operas,  sixty-six  of  which  are 
still  extant,  more  than  two  hundred  masses,  besides  many 
miscellaneous  works  for  church  and  concert,  both  vocal 
and  instrumental. 

His  Services  to  the  Opera. — To  the  simple  recitative  (reci- 
tative secco),  invented  by  Peri,  he  added  the  important  form 
known  as  the  recitativo  stromentato  (accompanied  recita- 
tive). This  was  not  strictly  original  with  Scarlatti,  since 
it  had  been  introduced  by  Purcell  in  his  Dido  and  Eneas  ten 
years  before  the  Italian  had  first  used  it  in  his  opera  Rosaura 
(1690).  There  is  no  probability,  however,  that  Scarlatti 
was  acquainted  with  the  Englishman's  works ;  it  is  a  not 
uncommon  matter  for  two  minds  to  arrive  independently  at 
the  same  result.  In  the  accompanied  recitative,  the  voice, 
instead  of  being  supported  by  detached  (secco)  chords  on 
the  harpsichord,  sometimes  with  the  addition  of  a  single 
stringed  instrument,  as  in  the  simple  recitative,  was  accom- 
panied by  the  entire  orchestra,  which  had  grown  to  propor- 
tions undreamed-of  in  Peri's  day.  Vastly  developed  by  the 
growth  of  orchestral  resources,  it  is  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  modern  music  drama.  As  a  rule,  however, 
it  was  but  little  used  in  Scarlatti's  operas  or  in  those  of  his 
contemporaries.  Interest  in  the  drama,  as  such,  was  fast 
sinking  to  a  negligible  quantity ;  andiences  assembled  to 
hear  their  favorite  singers,  not  to  follow  the  course  of  a 
more  or  less  involved  dramatic  action.  The  simple  recita- 
tive was,  therefore,  more  frequently  employed  in  order  to 


190 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


hurry  through  the  necessary  details  of  the  play  and  reach 
the  moment  when  the  singer  could  delight  by  his  art  in  the 
aria. 

The  Aria. — Scarlatti  was  not  the  inventor  of  the  aria  or 
air  for  the  single  voice  in  the  meaning  of  the  term  as  ap- 
plied to  a  certain  fixed  form.  Other  composers  had  used  it 
before  him  in  its  essential  principles,  but  he  was  the  first 
to  formulate  it  into  a  persistent  type,  which  it  retained  for 
nearly  a  century,  despite  its  undramatic  character.  The 
Scarlatti  aria  consisted  of  three  parts :  two  contrasting  sec- 
tions, concluding  with  a  Da  Capo  or  repetition  of  the  first, 
expressed  by  the  formula  ABA.  The  principle  of  Repeti- 
tion as  an  element  of  form  is  now  a  commonplace,  but  at 
the  time  it  was  a  novelty,  and  the  emphasis  given  to  it  by 
the  aria  fascinated  the  public  and  made  it  the  principal 
feature  of  the  opera.  More  than  anything  else,  it  led  to  its 
degeneration.  Singers  found  in  the  aria  a  means  of  dis- 
playing their  technical  skill ;  it  became  the  canvas  on  which 


i 


^^m 


.     dil  -  lo,         dil  -  to, 


r^ 


1-1  Wi 


_i^ 


iicuso. 


^  n^'  ^^r>r'^^ 


{VioloKello Sr*  Viola.\ 
lasci 


AiB  FBOM  ScABLATn's  Opeba  "Tcbno  Abicino." 

\ 


THE   TYPICAL   ITALIAN    OPERA.  I9I 

they  embroidered  the  most  astonishing  tours  de  force.  The 
art  of  acting  ahnost  disappeared  from  the  operatic  stage ; 
the  poise  of  body  and  voice  required  for  such  vocal  efforts 
banished  all  but  a  few  conventional  gestures. 

The  Overture. — Scarlatti's  powers  were  by  no  means  con- 
fined to  writing  for  the  voice;  the  instrumental  portions  of 
his  works  give  evidence  of  equal  mastery,  though  the  pop- 
ular taste  for  singing  allowed  him  but  little  scope  for  ex- 
tension in  this  direction.  His  overtures  in  particular  show 
a  great  advance  over  the  simple  preludes  of  the  early  Italian 
operas.  He  perfected  what  is  known  as  the  Italian  Overture 
in  contradistinction  to  the  earlier  form  invented  by  Lully, 
and  called  the  French  Overture.  It  consisted  of  three  move- 
ments, the  first  and  last  quick,  the  middle  movement  slow. 
In  its  arrangement,  this  was  the  direct  precursor  of  the 
modern  symphony.  At  first  the  two  terms  were  inter- 
changeable ;  an  overture  when  played  before  an  opera  was 
called  a  Sinfonia,  and  curiously  enough,  when  played  in- 
dependently as  a  concert  number  it  was  frequently  called 
an  overture.  Some  of  the  early  symphonies  were  even 
printed  with  one  title  outside  and  the  other  inside. 

The  Typical  Italian  Opera. — Thus  at  the  beginning  of  the 
i8th  century  we  find  the  Opera  on  an  overwhelmingly  mu- 
sical basis  instead  of  the  oratorical  foundation  which  '"t 
had  in  its  inception.  Scarlatti  fixed  its  form  for  a  centu 
He  left  it  consisting  principally  of  recitatives  and  aria», 
each  opera  containing  from  fifty  to  sixty  of  the  latter. 
Aside  from  these  there  was  but  little  formal  music — only 
an  occasional  march  or  dance  besides  the  overture.  The 
simple  recitative  was  used  for  ordinary  dialogue;  hence  it 
was  peculiarly  applicable  to  the  Opera  Buff  a  (comic  opera). 
The  accompanied  recitative  was  reserved  for  situations  of 
dramatic  importance,  and  the  aria  served  to  express  indi- 
vidual emotion.  The  chorus  was  employed  but  sparingly, 
generally  appearing  only  at  the  end  of  the  act  to  give 
greater  eclat  to  the  finale.  The  dance,  which  in  the  early 
Opera  had  played  a  part  of  some  importance,  was  finally 
banished  entirely  from  the  scene,  though  not  from  the  stage. 


192  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

It  was  given  between  the  acts  as  an  intermezzo  (interlude), 
and  thus  developed  into  the  formal  ballet.  Spectacular 
features,  too,  assumed  great  prominence. 

The  Intermezzo.- — The  Intermezzo  has  a  close  connection 
with  the  opera.  It  arose  from  the  custom  of  introducing 
something  betzveen  the  acts  of  a  play  or  opera  to  entertain 
the  ?udience  during  the  necessary  period  of  waiting.  At 
fii  songs  or  madrigals  were  sung,  then  by  degrees  the 
entertainment  took  on  a  dramatic  form,  until  at  last  a 
drama  was  given  totally  independent  of  the  principal  play. 
Singularly  enough,  the  acts  of  the  two  plays  were  per- 
formed alternately,  neither  having  any  connection  with  the 
other.  The  Intermezzo  was  always  of  a  gayer,  lighter  char- 
acter; thus  when  the  incongruity  of  the  practice  became 
apparent,  it  naturally  evolved  into  the  Opera  Buff  a.  This 
was  brought  about  by  the  success  of  the  most  celebrated 
comic  opera  ever  written,  La  Serva  Padrona  (The  Maid  as 
Mistress),  by  Giovanni  Pergolesi  (1710-1736).  This  was 
originally  produced  (1734)  as  an  Intermezzo  between  the 
acts  of  another  play,  and  afterward  made  a  triumphant 
progress  through  all  the  opera  houses  in  Europe  as  an  in- 
dependent work. 

The  Opera  Bnffa. — Though  for  the  sake  of  contrast,  comic 
characters  had  been  introduced  into  the  opera  during  the 
early  Venetian  period,  the  Opera  Bnffa  did  not  reach  its 
full  development  until  the  following  century.  Owing  to 
the  absence  of  certain  conventions  which  had  grown  around 
the  Opera  Seria  (serious  opera)  it  became  a  more  charac- 
teristic mode  of  expression  than  the  latter.  Its  melodies 
were  fresher,  its  dramatic  action  was  less  restrained  and 
truer  to  life,  while  it  performed  a  valuable  service  by  doing 
away  with  the  strange  mingling  of  comic  and  serious  styles 
which  had  previously  disfigured  many  otherwise  impressive 
works.  To  it  we  owe  the  concerted  Finale  which  is  such 
a  feature  of  modern  grand  opera.  It  is  attributed  to  Nic- 
colo  Log^oscino  (1700- 1763),  who  instead  of  the  customary 
conclusion  of  an  act  by  a  simple  duet,  trio,  or  quartet, 
brought  all  the  Dramatis  Persona  on  the  stage  to  take  part 


THE    NEAPOrjTAN    SCHOOL.  193 

in  a  characteristic  ensemble.  Greatly  developed  by  later 
composers,  such  finales  were  for  a  long  time  confnietl  to 
Opera  Biil'fa,  until  I'aisiello  finally  introduced  them  into 
serious  opera. 

Prominent  Composers  of  the  Neapolitan  School.  —  It  is 
hardly  possible  to  mention  more  than  a  few  of  the  numerous 
composers  belonging  to  the  Neapolitan  school.  Besides 
Pergolesi,  the  most  important  works  of  this  school  were 
composed  by  Niccolo  Porpora  (1685-1767),  Niccolo  Jom- 
melli  ( 1 714- 1 774),  Niccolo  Piccini  (1728- 1800),  Giovanni 
Paisiello  (i 741 -18 16)  and  Domenico  Cimarosa  (i  749-1 801). 
Most  of  these  were  equally  at  home  in  the  Opera  Seria  and 
the  Opera  Buff  a,  but  their  works  in  the  latter  style  have 
proved  the  more  enduring. 

Porpora  is  more  noteworthy  for  the  singers  he  formed 
than  for  his  forty-six  operas,  all  of  which  have  sunk  into 
oblivion.  He  was  the  greatest  of  the  many  masters  of  sing- 
ing who  through  their  pupils  made  the  Opera  of  the  i8th 
century  the  field  of  display  for  the  most  remarkable  singers 
the  world  has  ever  heard.  Jommelli  was  one  of  the  most 
gifted  composers  of  his  day.  He  spent  fifteen  years  in 
Germany  as  capellmeister  to  the  Duke  of  Wurtemburg, 
but  the  influence  of  this  long  residence  in  a  country  where 
musical  ideals  were  of  a  more  austere  type  than  in  Italy, 
though  it  added  dignity  and  solidity  to  his  art,  was  fatal 
to  his  popularity  when  he  returned  to  his  native  land ;  his 
countrymen  found  his  operas  heavy  in  style  and  deficient  in 
melody.  Piccini  was  the  composer  of  the  most  popular 
Opera  Buffa  of  the  century,  Cecchina,  but  is  now  remem- 
bered principally  by  the  bitter  feud  which  arose  in  Paris  in 
1787  between  his  admirers  and  those  of  Gluck.  Paisiello's 
most  celebrated  work  was  II  Barhiere  di  Siviglia  (The 
Barber  of  Seville),  which  held  the  stage  for  thirty  years 
until  the  success  of  Rossini's  masterpiece  on  the  same  sub- 
ject forced  it  into  retirement.  Cimarosa's  II  Matrimonio 
Segreto  (The  Secret  Marriage)  was  an  equal  favorite;  one 
of  its  numbers,  the  trio  for  women's  voices,  Ti  Faccio  un 
Inchino  (I  make  thee  a  reverence),  sometimes  appears  on 
modern  programs. 


194  .  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Influence  of  the  Neapolitan  School. — Xotwitlistandinp;^  the 
formalism  of  tlie  Neapolitan  school,  which  led  to  a  regret- 
table neglect  of  the  dramatic  signification  of  the  Opera  by 
an  over-emphasis  of  its  musical  element,  it  was  of  no  small 
importance  in  the  development  of  music  in  general.  By 
fixing  the  i)rinciples  of  form  and  melody  at  a  time  when 
both  were  vague  and  undetermined,  Scarlatti  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  great  classical  period,  beginning  with  Haydn 
and  Mozart  and  ending  with  Beethoven.  This  was  his 
contribution  to  absolute  music,  which  cannot  exist  without 
form,  though  its  influence  was  disastrous  to  purity  of  form 
in  the  branch  of  the  art  which  he  particularly  cultivated. 

References. 
Dent. — Alessandro  Scarlatti :    His  Life  and  Works. 

Questions  and  Suggestions, 

Which  Italian  city  now  became  the  centre  of  operatic 
development  ? 

Who  was  the  founder  of  this  new  school? 

Tell  about  his  style  and  training. 

What  did  he  contribute  to  the  development  of  the  Opera  ? 

Describe  the  Aria. 

Describe  the  Overture. 

Describe  a  typical  Italian  Opera. 

Describe  the  Intermezzo. 

Describe  the  Opera  Buffa. 

Who  were  the  prominent  composers  of  the  Neapolitan 
school  ? 

What  was  the  influence  of  this  school  ? 

The  period  of  Scarlatti's  work  extends  approximately 
from  the  English  Revolution  of  1688,  which  drove  James 
II  from  the  throne,  to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  George  I. 
In  American  Colonial  history  this  period  is  one  of  gather- 
ing strength  in  the  various  provinces  on  the  Atlantic  Coast. 


LESSON  XX. 

Singing  and  Singers. 

Early  Methods  of  Singing. — As  has  been  noted  by  the 
reader,  music,  up  to  this  time,  developed  principally  along 
vocal  lines.  We  have  no  details  as  to  the  character  of  the 
training  of  singers  among  the  Chaldeans,  Egyptians  and 
Greeks  except  such  as  indicate  that  their  idea  of  singing 
was  a  sort  of  musical  declamation.  Such  seems  also  to 
have  been  the  idea  of  the  nations  in  the  north  of  Europe. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Welsh  bards  were  required  to  un- 
dergo a  very  thorough  and  exacting  course  of  study,  but 
the  practical  side  of  singing  and  the  rules  laid  down  for 
the  training  of  the  young  minstrels  is  not  a  part  of  our 
knowledge.  The  songs  of  the  early  Church,  sung  by  masses 
of  worshipers,  were  of  necessity  simple  in  every  way,  re- 
quiring no  art.  It  was  not  until  the  use  of  Discant  became 
popular,  and  the  Polyphonic  school  began  to  use  florid 
writing  that  we  can  infer  that  there  must  have  been  some 
methods  of  training  vocalists  for  artistic  work.  Although 
we  have  little  or  no  details  as  to  the  course  of  training 
which  the  early  singers  received,  we  are  justified  in  assum- 
ing that  they  must  have  possessed  skill  in  execution  of  no 
mean  order.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  practically  all 
the  composers  of  the  early  Polyphonic  school  were  sing- 
ers, able  to  execute  their  own  works.  Hence,  studies  in 
singing  must  have  gone  hand  in  hand  with  composition. 
The  voice  parts  of  the  masses,  motets  and  madrigals  of  the 
composers  of  the  13th  to  the  i6th  centuries  have  absolute 
independence  of  progression,  syncopations,  embellishments, 
etc.,  to  such  an  extent  that  it  taxes  the  musicianship  of  the 

(195) 


196  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

chorus  singer  of  the  present  day  to  sing  them ;  they  are 
not  only  exacting  in  intonation,  rhythm  and  other  musical 
matters  but  also  in  mechanical  points,  such  as  flexibility  and 
freedom  of  voice  and  thorough  breath  control. 

Influence  of  the  Opera  on  Singing. — When  the  Opera  was 
established,  after  the  declamatory  style  offered  by  the  first 
composers  had  proven  unsuccessful  in  holding  the  public, 
the  florid  style  of  the  old  discanters  was  revived  and  modi- 
fied, which,  as  the  Opera  developed,  gave  a  great  impetus 
to  a  systematic  and  thorough  study  of  singing.  The  new 
style  of  melody  introduced  by  the  opera  composers  of  the 
17th  century  demanded  purity  of  voice,  wide  range,  flex- 
ibility, expressive  shading  and  a  marvelous  breath  control, 
as  well  as  great  physical  endurance.  Singers  were  expected 
to  execute  the  most  intricate  passages,  abounding  in  diatonic 
and  chromatic  scales,  arpeggios,  turns,  gruppettos,  trills, 
etc.,  of  the  most  elaborate  nature,  passages  such  as  are  con- 
sidered purely  instrumental  today.  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  the 
composer,  and  himself  a  singer,  is  credited  with  havmg 
had  much  to  do  with  the  great  development  in  the  art  of 
singing.  He  trained  a  number  of  singers  and  pupils,  and 
thus  founded  the  "old  Italian"  school  of  singing.  It  was 
natural  that  the  art  side  of  singing  should  thus  develop  in 
Italy  for  several  reasons,  notably,  because  Italy  had  a  great 
number  of  highly-trained  composers,  the  character  of  the 
language  is  such  as  to  lend  itself  to  the  requirements  of 
artistic  singing,  broad  full  vowels,  soft  consonants,  absence 
of  final  consonants,  etc.,  and  the  enthusiastic,  essentially 
lyric  temperament  of  the  race. 

The  Training  of  a  17th  Century  Singer. — We  are  given 
an  idea  of  the  course  of  training  which  singers  of  the  17th 
century  were  obliged  to  observe  in  a  work  Historia  Musica, 
published  by  G.  A.  A.  Buontempi,  in  1695.  This  contains 
an  account  of  the  regulations  of  a  school  for  singers  in 
Rome,  directed  by  Virgilio  Mazzocchi,  in  which  Buontempi 
was  a  pupil:  The  pupils  were  obliged  to  devote  one  hour 
each  day  to  the  singing  of  difficult  passages  with  the  idea 
of  acquiring  experience;    one  hour  to  the  practice  of  the 


THE    I7TH    CENTURY    SINGER'S    TRAINING. 


197 


trill,  one  to  passages  in  agility,  one  to  literary  studies,  one 
to  vocalises  and  to  various  other  technical  exercises  under 
the  direction  of  a  teacher  and  before  a  mirror  to  acquire 
the  certainty  that  the  singer  did  not  make  a  faulty  move- 
ment of  the  face,  the  forehead,  the  eyes  or  the  mouth. 
This  was  the  morning's  work.  In  the  afternoon,  a  half- 
hour  was  given  to  theory  study,  the  same  amount  to  writ- 
ing counterpoint  on  plain-song  melodies,  then  to  learning 
and  applying  the  rules  of  composition  (writing  on  an  eras- 
able sheet)  ;  then  followed  a  half-hour  of  study  of  a  literary 
nature,  and  the  rest  of  the  day  was  given  to  practice  on  the 
clavichord,  to  the  composition  of  a  psalm,  motet,  canzonetta, 
or  any  other  kind  of  piece  according  to  the  pupil's  choice. 


AIR  for  BASS 


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11 

From  a  "Misebebe"  by  Dentice,  end  of  16th  Centuby. 

Such  were  the  common  exercises  of  those  days  when  the 
pupils  were  kept  on  duty  at  the  school.  On  other  days, 
they  would  go  outside  the  Angelica  Gate  to  sing  against 
the  famous  echo  that  was  found  there,  listening  to  the 
response  in  order  to  criticise  their  work.  Other  duties  were 
to  sing  in  nearly  all  the  musical  solemnities  of  the  various 
churches,  to  study  attentively  the  style  of  the  great  singers 
of  the  day,  to  make  a  report  of  their  observations  to  their 
master,  who,  the  better  to  impress  the  result  of  their  studies 
upon  the  minds  of  his  pupils,  added  remarks  and  advice 


198  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

as  he  deemed  necessary.  Under  such  discipHne  it  is  not 
astonishing  that  the  Itahan  singers  attained  a  high  degree 
of  excellence,  and  became  not  only  distinguished  singers 
but  skilful  composers  as  well.  That  the  reader  may  gather 
an  idea  of  the  character  of  passages  executed  by  these 
singers  an  example  is  given  on  the  previous  page. 

Growth  of  the  Florid  Style. — As  the  art  of  singing  de- 
veloped, the  singers  increased  their  capricious  embellish- 
ments. With  the  idea  of  securing  brilliancy  as  well  as  the 
hope  of  winning  success  for  their  works,  composers  yielded 
to  the  exactions  of  singers  and  the  depraved  taste  of  the 
dilettanti.  This  explains  the  seemingly  endless  vocalizing 
and  those  passages  of  pure  agility  which  crowd  the  scores 
of  the  best  Italian  masters  of  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries. 
Before  giving  some  account  of  the  famous  singers  of  the 
old  Italian  school  it  will  be  interesting  to  have  a  few  notes 
upon  a  work  on  vocal  music  which  bears  upon  the  matter 
of  execution. 

A  Work  on  Singing. — In  1725,  Pier  Francesco  Tosi,  a 
renowned  singer  (born  about  1650,  died  1730),  published 
a  work,  translated  into  English,  and  published  in  1742  un- 
der the  title  "Observations  on  the  Florid  Song,  or  Senti- 
ments of  the  Ancient  and  Modern  Singers,"  which  contains 
some  interesting  and  valuable  statements  for  the  student  of 
the  history  of  the  art  of  singing.  The  most  minute  prin- 
ciples are  set  forth  with  much  grace  and  spirit,  in  all  cases 
showing  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the  author  for  his  art 
and  a  high  sense  of  the  dignity  of  the  profession  of  singing. 
When  the  discussion  is  in  regard  to  certain  kinds  of  pas- 
sages in  which  the  singer  was  accustomed  to  improvise 
ornaments,  Tosi  demands  the  union  of  five  qualities:  in- 
telligence, invention,  meter  (rhythm),  mechanism  (technic) 
and  taste;  and  in  addition,  other  qualities  which  he  calls 
"secondary  and  auxiliary  graces" :  the  appoggiatura,  the 
trill,  the  portamento  di  voce,  phrasing.  This  work  by  Tosi 
and  one  by  Marcello  entitled  Le  Theatre  a  la  Mode  throw 
much  light  on  the  execution  of  the  vocal  music  of  the  i8th 
century. 


CELEBRATED   SINGERS,  I99 

Seventeenth  Century  Singers.  —  Baldassare  Ferri  (1610- 
1680)  was  one  of  the  most  renowned  of  the  male  sopranos 
of  the  old  school.  His  voice  had  the  greatest  agility  and 
facility,  perfect  intonation,  a  brilliant  shake  or  trill  and  his 
breath  supply  seemed  to  be  inexhaustible.  In  regard  to 
his  intonation,  it  is  said  that  he  was  able  to  ascend  and 
descend  in  one  breath  a  two-octave  scale  with  a  continuous 
trill  without  accompaniment  with  such  perfection  of  intona- 
tion that  when  he  finished  he  had  not  varied  a  shade  from 
the  pitch  of  his  starting-note.  He  was  in  high  favor  in 
the  courts  of  Poland,  Germany,  Sweden  and  England.  A 
medal  was  struck  in  his  honor.  Antonio  Bernacchi  (1690- 
1756)  was  a  pupil  of  Pistocchi  (1659-1720),  the  most  cele- 
brated teacher  in  Italy  at  this  time,  whose  principles  are 
represented  in  Tosi's  book.  He  commenced  his  career  early 
and  appeared  in  opera  in  Italy,  later  in  England  and  Ger- 
many. After  some  years  of  experience  with  the  public  taste 
he  altered  his  style,  making  great  use  of  the  florid  style,  a 
veritable  embroidery  of  roulades,  an  innovation  that  was  so 
successful  as  to  be  immediately  followed  by  other  singers 
in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  older  school  of  singers.  It  is 
related  that  when  Pistocchi  heard  his  former  pupil,  he  said : 
"Ah !  woe  is  me !  I  taught  thee  to  sing  and  now  thou  wilt 
play !  "  He  sang  in  Handel's  opera  company  in  London, 
1729-30.  He  then  returned  to  Italy  to  take  up  the  career 
of  a  teacher  and  brought  out  a  number  of  fine  singers. 
Francesco  Bernardi  Senesino  (1680-1750)  was  a  great  fa- 
vorite in  England,  where  he  sang  in  Handel's  operas.  His 
voice  was  exceptionally  fine  in  quality,  clear,  penetrating 
and  flexible,  his  technic  remarkable ;  his  style  was  marked 
by  purity,  simplicity  and  expressiveness,  and  his  delivery 
of  recitative  was  famous  over  all  Europe.  The  name  of 
Niccolo  Porpora  was  mentioned  In  connection  with  the 
opera  as  a  celebrated  singing  master  as  well  as  composer. 
No  singers  before  or  since  have  sung  like  his  pupils,  notably 
Caffarelli  and  Farinelli. 

Gaetano  Majorano  Caffarelli  (1703- 1783) — the  reader  will 
note  that  many  of  the  old  school  of  musicians  lived  to  a 


200  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

ripe  old  age — was  the  son  of  a  Neapolitan  peasant,  who 
tried  to  repress  the  boy's  evident  musical  inclinations. 
Cafaro,  director  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  at  Naples,  chanced 
to  hear  him  sing  and  succeeded  in  getting  charge  of  him 
and  gave  him  his  elementary  instruction,  w'hich  was  fol- 
lowed by  instruction  from  Porpora,  who  was  then  living  in 
Naples.  Porpora  was  a  most  exacting  teacher,  requiring 
implicit  obedience  and  unceasing  practice.  The  story  is 
told  that  Porpora  kept  Caffarelli  for  five  or  six  years  to 
the  unvaried  study  of  a  single  page  of  exercises  despite  the 
pupil's  most  strenuous  objections.  At  the  end  of  the  time, 
when  CafTarelli  declared  he  would  submit  no  longer,  the 
old  teacher  said :  "Go,  my  son.  I  have  nothing  more  to 
teach  you.  You  are  the  greatest  singer  in  Europe."  When 
he  first  appeared  in  opera  he  sang  female  parts,  for  which 
his  beautiful  face  was  well-suited.  Some  years  later  he  took 
men's  parts.  He  gained  great  popularity  in  the  leading 
cities  of  Europe  and  amassed  an  enormous  fortune.  He  ex- 
celled in  slow  and  pathetic  airs,  yet  he  was  most  admirable 
in  the  bravura  style,  and  his  technic  in  the  trill  and  chro- 
matic scales  was  unapproached  by  any  other  singer  of  his 
time.  He  was  fond  of  introducing  chromatic  passages  in 
quick  movements. 

Farinelli  (1705- 1782),  whose  real  name  was  Carlo 
Broschi,  was  a  pupil  of  Porpora.  He  made  his  first  public 
appearance  in  Rome  when  he  was  seventeen  years  old.  It 
was  on  this  occasion  that  he  sang  the  famous  aria  with 
trumpet  obligato,  written  by  his  master,  a  piece  which  be- 
came so  associated  with  him  as  to  be  demanded  at  all  his 
concerts.  In  this  piece,  trumpet  and  voice  vie  with  each 
other  in  holding  and  swelling  a  note  of  extraordinary 
length  and  volume ;  when  the  trumpeter  had  exhausted  his 
breath  Farinelli  kept  on  with  increased  power  and  ended 
with  a  great  vocal  display.  This  aria  called  for  wonderful 
vocal  technic  owing  to  the  novelty  and  difficulty  of  the  trills 
and  variations  introduced.  In  1727,  he  engaged  in  a  mu- 
sical duel  with  Bernacchi,  previously  referred  to,  in  which 
he  was  conquered.     As  a  result  of  this  he  placed  himself 


ILL-EFFECT   OF   VIRTUOSITY.  201 

under  Bernacchi's  instruction,  and  thus  perfected  his  won- 
derful talent.  In  1731,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI,  he  modified  his  style  and  devoted  study  to  the 
mastery  of  pathos  and  simplicity.  During  his  public  career 
he  won  the  greatest  possible  success  in  the  European  cap- 
itals and  passed  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  wealth.  Man- 
cini,  a  fellow-pupil  of  Farinelli  and  later  a  famous  singing 
master,  says  of  Farinelli's  voice :  "It  was  so  perfect,  so 
powerful,  so  sonorous  and  so  rich  in  its  extent,  both  in  the 
high  and  the  low  parts  of  the  register,  that  its  equal  has 
never  been  heard  in  our  time.  .  .  .  The  art  of  taking 
and  keeping  the  breath  so  softly  and  easily  that  no  one 
could  perceive  it  began  and  ended  with  him.  The  qualities 
in  which  he  excelled  were  the  evenness  of  his  voice,  the  art 
of  swelling  its  sound,  the  portamento,  the  union  of  the 
registers,  a  surprising  agility,  a  graceful  and  pathetic  style 
and  a  shake  as  admirable  as  it  was  rare." 

A  few  other  singers  of  this  class  may  be  mentioned: 
Giacchino  Conti,  called  Gizziello  (1714-1761),  Giovanni 
Carestini  (1705-1758  ?)  a  contralto,  Giuseppe  Boschi,  the 
most  celebrated  basso  of  the  i8th  century,  one  of  Handel's 
singers,  and  Girolamo  Crescentini  (1766-1846).  So  much 
space  has  been  given  to  these  singers  because  their  work 
laid  the  principles  for  vocal  training  that  have  ever  since 
been  the  foundation  upon  which  the  great  masters  and  sing- 
ers of  later  times  have  built  their  art;  to  these  principles 
has  been  given  the  name  of  the  old  Italian  School  of  Singing. 

Ill-effect  of  Virtuosity. — The  student  who  goes  fully  into 
the  subject  of  the  relation  of  singers  to  the  opera  will  find 
that  the  great  development  of  virtuosity  among  singers 
exerted  an  ill-eflfect  and  called  forth  a  very  pronounced 
reform  in  which  Gluck  was  the  leader.  Singers  were 
capable  of  such  great  vocal  display,  and  the  public  showed 
so  much  enthusiasm  for  the  brilliant  feats  of  vocalism,  and 
so  great  was  the  rivalry  between  singers  and  their  partisans 
that  composers  vied  with  each  other  in  their  efforts  to  in- 
troduce the  most  difficult  and  florid  passages  possible.  The 
text  of  an  aria  had  no  real  value  and  became  merely  a  vehicle 


a02  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

upon  which  to  place  the  dazzling  vocalization  of  the  singer. 
Dramatic  truth  was  ruthlessly  sacrificed.  A  singer,  sup- 
posed to  be  in  the  very  throes  of  death,  would  give  a  vir- 
tuosic  display  that  would  tax  the  lung  power  of  a  man  in 
the  most  perfect  physical  condition.  Gluck's  reform  con- 
sisted in  requiring  that  the  arias  shouM  express  the  emo- 
tions suited  to  the  situation,  thus  calling  for  expressive 
singing,  not  mere  vocal  display.  The  history  of  the  opera 
and  singing  since  then  shows  periods  of  change  toward  one 
idea  or  the  other  until  the  principles  of  Richard  Wagner 
as  to  dramatic  truth  were  generally  accepted. 

References. 
Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  articles  on 
the  singers  mentioned  in  this  lesson.  . 

Questions. 

What  circumstances  show  that  the  church  singers  of  the 
13th  tOvi6th  centuries  must  have  had  considerable  skill  in 
singing? 

What  was  the  influence  of  the  opera  on  singing? 

What  was  the  course  of  training  required  of  young 
singers  in  the  17th  century? 

What  important  work  on  singing  dates  from  the  early 
part  of  the  i8th  century?     Give  some  of  its  principles. 

Describe  the  celebrated  singers  of  this  period  and  their 
work. 

What  was  the  influence  of  vocal  virtuosity  on  music? 


LESSON  XXI. 

Opera  in  France  and  England. 

Spread  of  Italian  Opera. — The  fame  of  Italian  opera  soon 
spread  to  other  countries.  Princes  and  kings,  eager  to  hear 
the  new  style  of  music,  held  out  golden  inducements  to 
Italian  composers  and  singers  to  come  to  their  courts ; 
it  was  generally  thought  that  none  but  an  Italian  could 
compose  an  opera  or  sing  an  aria.  The  consequence  was 
that  in  almost  all  countries  during  the  i8th  century  the 
prevailing  musical  influence  was  Italian;  native  composers 
and  singers  were  obliged  to  study  Italian  models  if  they 
wished  to  attain  to  popular  favor.  In  France,  however,  this 
influence  was  only  sufficient  to  modify  without  obscuring 
the  features  of  an  essentially  national  school.  Indepen- 
dence in  matters  of  art  has  always  been  a  marked  charac- 
teristic of  the  French;  they  have  led  rather  than  followed. 
The  most  distinguished  names  in  the  history  of  French 
opera  have  been  those  of  foreign  birth,  but  whatever  their 
nationalities,  all  give  evidence  of  the  eflfect  exerted  upon 
them  by  the  definite  form,  the  clearness  of  dramatic  inten- 
tion demanded  by  the  canons  of  French  taste. 

Origin  of  French  Opera. — As  the  Italian  opera  was  derived 
from  the  classical  tragedy,  so  the  French  opera  had  its  origin 
in  the  Ballet,  the  favorite  form  of  amusement  in  France. 
The  French  Ballet  of  the  17th  century  was  by  no  means 
confined  to  the  dance;  it  was  a  heterogeneous  mingling  of 
dances  and  dialogues,  songs  and  choruses,  corresponding 
to  the  English  Masque.  Like  the  early  operas  in  Italy,  their 
spectacular  features  were  on  a  large  and  expensive  scale, 
which  confined  them  to  occasions  of  especial  festivity  at 
court  or  among  the  nobility.     The  taste  for  dancing  had 


204  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

much  to  do  with  the  direction  taken  by  the  opera  in  France ; 
it  is  still  characteristic  of  the  French  school,  as  is  shown 
by  the  prominent  place  given  to  the  ballet  in  the  Grand 
Opera. 

Lnlly. — The  founder  of  the  French  school,  Jean  Baptiste 
Lully  (1633-1687).  was  Italian  by  birth,  but  at  the  age  of 
thirteen  he  was  taken  from  his  native  city,  Florence,  to 
France,  as  a  page  in  the  service  of  the  Chevalier  de  Guise. 
His  musical  gifts  soon  won  him  a  place  in  the  royal  band 
and  finally  the  post  of  court  composer.  He  first  wrote  bal- 
lets in  w'hich  the  King  (Louis  XIV^)  himself  danced,  and 
later  turned  his  attention  to  the  opera. 

Italian  Opera  in  France. — Italian  opera  had  already  been 
heard  in  France.  Through  Cardinal  Mazarin,  an  opera 
company  from  Venice  had  visited  Paris  in  1645,  and  two 
years  later  Peri's  Eiiridice  had  been  given  also  by  a  Vene- 
tian troupe;  but  these  and  later  performances  had  aroused 
no  attempts  at  imitation  by  French  composers.  They  con- 
tented themselves  with  writing  ballets  w'hich  were  per- 
formed as  intermezzos  between  the  acts  of  Italian  operas  in 
order  to  bring  them  nearer  the  French  standards  of  taste. 
The  superior  vocal  ability  of  the  Italians  was  acknowledged, 
but  the  lack  of  rhythmic  form  in  their  music  made  an  un- 
favorable impression.  The  king  was  passionately  fond  of 
dancing;  he  and  his  courtiers  frequently  took  part  in  the 
ballets  produced  at  court,  hence  the  interest  lay  in  the 
drama  as  illustrated  by  the  dance  rather  than  by  song. 

Beginning  of  French  Opera. — The  first  French  opera  to 
receive  public  performance  was  Pomone  (Pomona),  in 
1671,  by  Robert  Cambert  (1628-1677),  who  had  previously 
written  several  others  which  had  been  performed  only  in 
private.  It  aw^akened  much  more  interest  than  the  Italian 
operas  which  thus  far  had  been  heard  in  Paris,  and  incited 
Lully  to  the  composition  of  his  first  opera,  Les  Fetes  de 
V Amour  et  Bacchus  (The  Feasts  of  Love  and  Bacchus), 
which  was  produced  the  following  year.  From  that  time 
until  his  death  he  composed  fifteen  operas,  which  deter- 
mined the  form  of  French  opera  for  practically  a  century. 


LULLY  S   OPERAS.  2O5 

Characteristics  of  LuUy's  Operas.  —  Lully's  operas,  like 
those  of  the  Florentine  school,  were  on  the  whole  declama- 
tory in  style,  and  like  them  their  subjects  were  generally 
taken  from  classical  mythology.  They  are  destitute  of  the 
sustained  melody  which  appeared  somewhat  later  in  the 
Neapolitan  school;  but  the  recitatives  are  so  skilfully 
varied  in  rhythm  and  show  such  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
genius  of  the  French  language  that  in  dramatic  effect  they 
are  far  superior  to  those  of  the  earlier  school.  To  the  over- 
ture, the  ballet,  the  chorus,  he  assigned  music  of  a  different 
type,  rhythmic  and  formal  in  nature,  thus  relieving  the 
monotony  of  an  exclusively  declamatory  style.  A  master 
of  stage-craft,  his  operas  abounded  in  cunningly-devised 
spectacles  and  original  scenic  effects  which  excited  wonder 
and  held  the  attention.  In  short,  so  far  as  the  means  of  the 
times  allowed,  we  find  in  the  Lully  operas  the  well-con- 
sidered balance  between  the  musical  and  dramatic  elements 
still  characteristic  of  the  French  school. 

The  French  Overture. — One  of  Lully's  greatest  services 
was  the  elaboration  of  the  Overture  into  a  larger  and  more 
dignified  form.  The  Italians  had  never  paid  much  atten- 
tion to  the  overture.  At  first  it  appeared  only  as  a  brief 
instrumental  prelude,  sometimes  but  a  few  measures  in 
length.  The  introduction  to  Monteverde's  Orfeo,  for  ex- 
ample, consists  of  only  nine  measures  which  the  composer 
directs  to  be  played  over  three  times  to  serve  as  overture. 
Later  it  was  somewhat  extended  in  length  and  provided 
with  some  regularity  of  design,  but  the  Overture  as  a  fixed 
form  dates  from  Lully.  It  began  with  an  impressive  slow 
movement,  followed  by  an  Allegro  in  fugue  style.  Some- 
times this  was  all ;  but  it  generally  concluded  with  another 
slow  movement,  often  one  of  the  stately,  dignified  dance 
tunes  of  the  day,  and  often  merely  a  repetition  of  the  Intro- 
duction. This  form  was  known  as  the  French  Overture, 
and  was  soon  adopted  by  composers  of  all  nationalities. 
About  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  it  was  supplanted  by 
the  Italian  Overture,  perfected  by  Scarlatti,  and  described 
in  Lesson  XIX. 


206  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

The  Prologue. — The  overture  was  commonly  followed  by 
a  Prologue.  This  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  action  of 
the  drama ;  it  introduced  mythological  and  allegorical  char- 
acters who  danced  and  sang,  often  paying  the  most  fulsome 
adulation  to  the  king,  who  was  compared  to  the  most  cele- 
brated heroes  of  mythology  and  antiquity.  After  the  pro- 
logue, either  the  overture  was  repeated,  or  another  and  a 
shorter  one  was  played.  This  pseudo-classical  type  of  opera 
naturally  flourished  in  the  artificial  atmosphere  of  the  court 
on  which  it  was  dependent  for  favor.  It  lasted  until  the 
time  of  Gluck,  when  the  influences  which  led  to  the  great 
uprising  of  the  people  in  the  latter  part  of  the  i8th  century 
swept  it  away  with  other  traditions  and  conventions. 

Rameau. — Until  we  come  to  Jean  Philippe  Ramean  ( 1683- 
1764),  none  of  Lully's  successors  succeeded  in  definitely 
extending  the  limits  he  had  fixed.  Rameau  had  won  the 
name  of  the  first  theoretician  of  the  day,  and  was  a  man  of 
fifty  when  his  first  opera,  Hippolyte  et  Aricie,  was  produced. 
Even  he  made  no  essential  change  in  the  scheme  estab- 
lished by  Lully  beyond  greatly  enlarging  the  sphere  of  the 
orchestra,  originating  novel  rhythms  and  bolder  harmonies. 
This  was,  however,  a  long  step  in  advance,  since  it  saved 
the  opera  from  sinking  to  the  level  of  a  dull,  mechanical 
imitation  of  Lully's  methods,  into  which  contemporary  com- 
posers had  fallen. 

The  English  School. — Italian  music,  in  the  form  of  the 
Madrigal,  had  been  popular  in  England  since  the  time  of 
its  introduction  in  1598,  by  Thomas  Morley  (1557-1604). 
Native  composers  immediately  took  it  into  favor,  a  favor 
it  has  never  lost ;  madrigals  are  still  composed  and  sung  in 
England,  though  elsewhere  the  form  has  been  dead  for 
nearly  two  centuries.  The  declamatory  opera  of  the  early 
Italian  school,  however,  never  took  root.  It  was,  as  we 
have  seen,  primarily  a  drama  in  which  music  played  a  sec- 
ondary part,  and  as  such  it  was  far  too  crude  and  lacking 
in  human  interest  to  appeal  to  a  public  accustomed  to  the 
plays  of  Shakespeare  and  his  contemporaries,  and  whose 
taste  in  music,  moreover,  was  rather  for  melody  than  for 


PURCELU  207 

recitative.  Then,  during  the  Protectorate,  the  Puritanical 
spirit  which  led  to  the  destruction  of  church  organs  and  for 
a  time  forbade  all  theatrical  performances  proved  an  in- 
superable obstacle  to  any  development  of  dramatic  music. 

The  First  English  Operas. — In  1656,  Sir  William  Dave- 
nant,  the  playwright  and  theatrical  manager,  evaded  this 
prohibition  by  introducing  music  into  his  plays  and  calling 
them  operas.  Much  of  this  music,  which  was  in  the  form 
of  incidental  songs,  choruses  and  instrumental  interludes, 
was  written  by  Henry  Lawes  (1595-1662)  and  Matthew 
Locke  (d.  1677).  The  latter  is  well  known  for  his  music 
to  "Macbeth,"  which  up  to  within  a  few  years  was  not 
infrequently  heard  in  performances  of  the  tragedy.  These 
so-called  operas  had  little  or  no  effect  on  the  development 
of  a  native  school.  They  are  principally  noteworthy  in 
being  the  first  English  operas  and  the  first  theatrical  per- 
formances in  England  in  which  women  appeared  on  the 
stage.  Previously  the  parts  of  women  had  been  played  by 
boys. 

Influence  of  the  French  School. — At  the  Restoration  in 
1660,  Charles  II  found  the  prevailing  style  of  music  in 
England  but  little  to  his  taste.  Fond  of  the  gay  measures 
and  lively  dances  of  the  French  opera,  in  1664  he  sent 
Pelham  Humfrey  (1647-1674),  the  most  talented  of  the 
boys  forming  the  choir  in  the  Chapel  Royal,  to  Paris  to 
study  with  Lully.  Three  years  later  he  returned,  and  be- 
came the  teacher  of  England's  greatest  composer. 

Henry  Pnrcell.  —  This  was  Henry  Purcell  (1658-1695), 
one  of  a  family  of  musicians  of  whom  he  stands  first.  As 
a  child  he  is  said  to  have  composed  anthems  while  a 
chorister  in  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two  he  composed  his  first  opera,  Dido  and  Eneas,  a  most  re- 
markable work  for  a  youth  of  his  years.  It  is  the  only 
one  of  his  dramatic  works  in  which  there  is  no  spoken  dia- 
logue, its  place  being  supplied  by  recitative,  and  therefore, 
strictly  speaking,  it  was  his  only  opera.  He  can  never  have 
seen  an  opera  of  this  type;  his  acquaintance  with  the  new 
style  must  have  been  largely  based  on  what  Humfrey  had 


208  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

told  him  of  such  performances  in  Paris,  though  it  is  pos- 
sible that  he  had  the  opportunity  of  studying  Lully's  scores. 
In  its  union  of  dramatic  feehng  and  characterization  with 
depth  of  musical  resource,  Dido  and  Eneas  was  far  in  ad- 
vance of  anything  that  had  yet  appeared  in  France  or  Italy. 
Though  it  shows  the  influence  of  the  French  school,  the 
sturdy  English  character  which  distinguishes  all  of  Pur- 
cell's  music  is  plainly  apparent. 

Purcell's  Dramatic  Works. — It  was  followed  by  a  large 
number  of  works  for  the  stage,  but  these  were  in  the  main 


Henby  Pubceix. 


merely  incidental  music  for  dramas;  among  them  Shake- 
speare's "Tempest,"  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream"  (known 
as  The  Fairy  Queen),  Dryden's  "King  Arthur,"  the  last 
being  the  most  important  and  extended  in  form.  Unfor- 
tunately, many  of  them  have  been  lost ;  but  enough  remain 
to  show  that  in  Purcell's  early  death  England  lost  the  most 
original  musical  genius  she  ever  possessed.  He  founded 
a  distinctly  national  school  which,  for  the  lack  of  a  suc- 
cessor of  equal  gifts,  was  destined  to  succumb  to  foreign 
influences. 


TYPICAL    ENGLISH    OPERA.  209 

Their  Characteristics. — His  melodies  bear  the  freshness 
and  spontaneity  of  the  EngHsh  Folk-song  at  a  period  when 
music  was  generally  cultivated,  before  civil  wars  and  re- 
ligious bigotry  had  crushed  the  art  spirit  which,  during  the 
i6th  century,  had  made  the  English  people  the  leaders  in 
musical  progress.  His  recitatives  show  a  vigor  and  an  in- 
tuitive perception  of  dramatic  efifect  unsurpassed  by  any 
of  his  contemporaries  on  the  Continent.  He  was  an  accom- 
plished contrapuntist  and  applied  his  knowledge  of  counter- 
point with  admirable  results  to  sacred  music,  yet  never 
allowed  it  to  become  obtrusive  in  his  dramatic  works.  In 
these  clear,  expressive  melody  and  vigorous  declamation 
w^ere  the  distinguishing  features ;  his  learning  served  only 
to  secure  a  natural  flow  of  the  one  and  an  appropriate 
setting  for  the  other. 

The  Masque. — The  precursor  of  the  English  opera  was 
the  Masque.  Like  the  French  Ballet,  this  was  a  dramatic 
entertainment  consisting  of  dialogues,  dances,  songs,  and 
choruses.  The  subject  was  allegorical  or  mythical  in  na- 
ture and  the  mounting  of  the  most  elaborate  description. 
The  leading  poets  and  dramatists  of  the  day  wrote  many 
masques.  The  most  famous  was  Milton's  "Masque  of 
Comus,"  the  music  by  Lawes,  which  was  performed  at 
Ludlow  Castle  in  1634.  The  music  in  these  masques  was 
at  first  designed  merely  to  give  variety  to  what  was  in  the 
main  a  pleasure  to  the  eye,  but  Purcell  relieved  it  of  this 
subordinate  character  by  investing  it  with  a  weight  and 
authority  which  made  it  an  integral  factor  in  the  dramatic 
expression.  "^ 

Typical  English  Opera. — He  thus  fixed  the  form  of  the 
English  opera  as  a  play  with  songs,  choruses,  ensembles, 
etc.,  connected  by  spoken  dialogue  instead  of  recitatives. 
The  music,  therefore,  instead  of  carrying  on  the  action,  is 
confined  to  the  more  quiet  situations  of  the  drama,  such 
as  are  naturally  adapted  to  lyrical  expression.  The  in- 
flexibility of  this  form  has  doubtless  had  much  to  do  with 
the  lack  of  development  in  the  English  School  of  Opera 
compared   with   the   remarkable   growth   of   other   schools 


2IO  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

which  have  abandoned  the  union   of  the   spoken   with   the 
sung  word  in  the  serious  opera. 

The  Ballad  Opera. — The  only  characteristic  creation  of 
the  English  school  is  the  Ballad  Opera.  This  had  its  origin 
in  "The  Beggar's  Opera,"  produced  in  1728.  Slight  in  tex- 
ture, it  was  simply  a  play  with  songs  set  to  the  most  pop- 
ular ballad  tunes  of  the  day.  Its  extraordinary  success  in 
the  face  of  the  financial  failure  of  Italian  opera  left  no 
doubt  as  to  the  real  taste  of  the  English  people,  and  was 
decisive  as  to  the  direction  taken  by  later  composers,  such 
as  Sir  Henry  Bishop  (1786- 1855),  Michael  Balfe  (1808- 
1870),  Arthur  Sullivan  (1842-1901). 

References. 
Davy. — History  of  English  Music. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

What  circumstances  attended  the  spread  of  the  Italian 
Opera  ? 

Which  European  country  was  the  next  to  take  up  Opera  ? 

Who  was  the  founder  of  this  new  school  ? 

What  efforts  had  been  made  prior  to  his  appearance? 

Describe  Lully's  opera  form. 

Describe  the  French  Overture. 

Describe  the  Prologue. 

Who  was  Lully's  successor? 

What  prevented  the  spread  of  the  principles  of  the  early 
Italian  Opera  in  England  ? 

Give  names  of  men  connected  with  the  early  history  of 
Opera  in  England. 

Give  an  account  of  Purcell  and  his  works. 

What  was  the  Masque? 

Describe  the  typical  English  Opera.     The  Ballad  Opera. 

The  pupil  will  note  that  the  development  of  French  Opera 
took  place  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  and  that  it  was  dfter 
the  restoration  of  Charles  II  in  England  that  opera  began 
there,  Purcell's  work  ending  with  the  close  of  the  17th 
century. 


LESSON  XXII. 

The  Opera  in  Germany.     Handel  and  Gluck. 

Opera  in  Germany. — The  introduction  of  the  opera  into 
Germany  dates  from  1627.  In  that  year  a  German  transla- 
tion of  Rinuccini's  Dafne,  which,  it  will  be  remembered, 
was  the  text  of  Peri's  first  opera,  was  set  to  music  by 
Heinrich,  Schuetz   (1585-1672)    and  performed  on  the  oc- 


Heinbich  Schuetz. 


casion  of  the  wedding  of  the  Landgraf  of  Hesse.  Schiitz, 
who  also  composed  the  first  German  oratorio,  Die  Aufer- 
stehung  Christi  (The  Resurrection  of  Christ),  had  been 
sent  by  the  Landgraf  to  study  in  Italy  in  1609,  only  two 
years  after  the  production  of  Monteverde's  Orfeo.  The 
score  of  his  Dafne  has  been  lost,  but  it  was  doubtless  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  principles  of  the  Florentine  school.    The 

(211) 


212  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Thirty  Years'  War  and  its  lamentable  consequences  pre- 
vented any  immediate  development  of  the  new  form.  Oc- 
casional productions  of  Italian  opera  were  given  in  several 
German  cities,  but  it  was  not  until  the  establishment  of  the 
Hamburg  opera  late  in  the  century  that  the  new  musical 
movement  gained  a  permanent  footing  in  Germany.  Even 
then  its  popularization  proceeded  but  slowly. 

German  Composers  Barred. — It  is  true  that  not  long  after 
the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  great  interest  was  mani- 
fested in  Italian  opera  at  a  number  of  courts,  Berlin  and 
Dresden  in  particular,  but  this  had  no  influence  in  the  for- 
mation of  a  national  school.  Its  efifect  indeed  was  the  ex- 
act contrary.  Singers  and  composers  were  brought  from 
Italy ;  among  the  cultivated  classes  opera  in  German  was 
considered  a  barbarism,  so  that  native  musicians  met  with 
little  or  no  encouragement  in  this  field.  They  were  obliged 
to  write  their  operas  to  an  Italian  text  if  they  wished  a 
hearing  for  them;  the  Church  alone  was  freely  open  to 
German  composers.  The  Church,  too,  was  the  only  place 
where  the  people  could  hear  music;  public  concerts  were 
unknown  and,  save  at  Hamburg,  the  opera  could  be  heard 
only  by  invitation  to  those  who  had  entree  to  court  circles. 
This  led  to  the  remarkable  activity  in  the  production  of 
sacred  music  which  is  such  a  feature  of  that  period.  This 
also,  as  shown  by  the  early  history  of  the  Hamburg  opera, 
was  more  in  consonance  with  German  character  than  the 
light,  ephemeral  operas  which  ruled  the  Italian  stage. 

Characteristics  of  the  Early  German  Opera. — The  Ham- 
burg opera  house  was  opened  in  1678  with  a  Biblical  Sing- 
spiel  (literally  song-play)  of  an  allegorical  nature,  Adam 
und  Eva;  oder  der  erschaffene,  gefallene  und  wieder  auf- 
gerichtete  Mensch  (Adam  and  Eve;  or  the  Created,  Fallen 
and  Redeemed  Man)  by  Johann  Theile  (1646- 1724)  a  noted 
organist  of  the  day  and  a  pupil  of  Schiitz.  This  was  the 
first  performance  of  a  German  opera  on  a  public  stage. 
The  Singspiel  corresponds  to  the  English  ballad  opera  in 
being  a  series  of  songs,  ensembles,  etc.,  mainly  of  a  simple 
nature,  connected  by  spoken  dialogue.     The  curious  taste 


HANDEL.  213 

of  the  time  is  shown  by  the  choice  of  subject ;  the  work 
itself  was  a  survival  of  the  Miracle  Plays  and  Mysteries  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  It  begins  with  the  creation  of  the  earth, 
which  is  formed  out  of  chaos  by  characters  representing 
the  four  elements ;  the  Almighty  descends  by  means  of  a 
flying  machine  and  calls  man  into  being;  Lucifer  succeeds 
in  his  temptation  of  Eve  to  the  great  joy  of  demons  who 
sing  an  exulting  chorus,  etc.  As  the  Italians  took  the  sub- 
jects for  their  early  operas  from  classical  mythology,  so  the 
Germans  took  theirs  from  Bible  history.  Adam  and  Eve 
was  followed  by  a  series  of  similar  Singspiele:  Michal  and 
David,  The  Maccabean  Mother,  Esther,  Cain  and  Abel, 
and  many  others. 

Change  of  Character. — In  time,  however,  these  gave  way 
to  operas  in  the  Italian  style.  The  chief  agent  in  this 
change  was  Reinhard  Keiser  (1674-1739)  who,  as  composer 
and  manager,  brought  the  Hamburg  opera  to  its  highest 
point.  Associated  with  him  was  Johannes  Mattheson  (1681- 
1764),  a  man  of  many  and  varied  gifts  as  singer,  composer, 
conductor,  scholar  and  diplomat,  now  chiefly  remembered 
by  his  close  relations  with  George  Frederic  Handel  (1685- 
1759).  The  latter  at  the  age  of  eighteen  came  from  his 
native  city,  Halle,  to  Hamburg,  then  the  musical  centre  of 
Germany,  to  continue  his  studies.  Mattheson  recognized 
the  youth's  genius  and  opened  the  way  for  the  performance 
of  his  first  opera,  Almira. 

Handel  and  the  Hamburg  Opera. — This,  with  Nero,  was 
given  in  1705  with  such  success  that  Keiser,  jealous  of  the 
young  composer,  set  them  both  to  music  himself  and  ban- 
ished his  rival's  works  from  the  stage.  Handel  thereupon 
withdrew  and  the  year  following  went  to  Italy,  where  he 
spent  several  years.  His  connection  with  the  Hamburg 
opera  was  too  slight  for  him  to  have  exercised  any  influence 
upon  it;  then,  too,  he  had  not  yet  reached  artistic  inde- 
pendence himself,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  would  have 
made  any  change  in  the  direction  it  was  taking  toward  con- 
ventionalized Italian  opera.  At  that  time  the  Hamburg 
opera  was  rapidly  losing  its  national  character;    the  style 


214  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

mainly  cultivated  was  that  of  the  Neapolitan  school ;  a 
tasteless  mingling  of  languages  was  even  allowed  in  one  and 
the  same  opera — the  recitatives  were  often  sung  in  German 
and  the  arias  in  Italian.  This  decadence  continued,  with  a 
consequent  loss  of  popular  favor,  until  in  1738  opera  in 
German  was  given  up  entirely,  and  Italian  opera  reigned 
triumphant  in  Germany. 

The  Conventionalized  Italian  Opera. — Handel,  on  his  re- 
turn from  Italy,  finally  found  his  way  to  England,  where 
he  made  his  home  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  The  series  of 
operas  he  produced  there  form  the  climax  of  the  type  orig- 
inated by  Scarlatti,  which  by  this  time  flourished  on  all 
stages  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others,  save  in  France,  where 
the  ideals  of  Lully  and  his  school  still  prevailed.  Its  chief 
aim  was  to  afford  singers  an  opportunity  to  display  their 
accomplishments.  To  this  end  the  composer  directed  his 
attention  principally  to  the  production  of  arias  which 
should  correspond  to  this  demand.  Exquisitely  beautiful 
as  these  often  were,  their  preponderance  completely  ob- 
scured the  dramatic  significance  of  the  opera,  and  led  the 
singers  to  entertain  grossly  exaggerated  ideas  of  their  im- 
portance. They  dictated  to  composers,  refused  to  sing 
what  in  their  opinion  failed  to  suit  their  voices,  and  in  many 
ways  kept  the  opera  from  rising  above  the  low  artistic  level 
to  which  it  had  fallen.  To  please  them,  a  highly  artificial 
scheme  of  arrangement  was  adopted  to  which  the  drama 
was  totally  subservient.  Only  six  characters  were  allowed, 
three  men  and  three  women ;  the  arias  were  strictly  classi- 
fied according  to  style  and  assigned  to  the  singers  in  a  cer- 
tain fixed  order ;  no  ensemble  beyond  a  duet  was  permitted, 
and  the  chorus  sang  only  in  the  closing  finale.  No  matter 
what  the  dramatic  exigencies  might  be,  adherence  to  these 
formulae  was  rigidly  exacted. 

Handel's  Operas. — Though  Handel  infused  a  vigor  of 
spirit  and  a  wealth  of  characteristic  melody  into  this  form 
of  opera,  he  made  no  definite  attempt  to  escape  its  restric- 
tions. Many  of  his  most  beautiful  creations  are  buried  in 
operas  which  are  dead  beyond  possibility  of  resurrection 


GLUCK.  215 

on  account  of  his  acquiescence  in  the  sentiment  of  his  times. 
That  this  is  not  due  to  lack  of  innate  power  is  shown  by 
his  oratorios. 

Gluck  and  His  Reform  of  the  Opera. — This  so-called  con- 
cert opera  reigned  with  almost  undisputed  sway  until  the 
influence  of  Christoph  Willibald  Gluck  (1714-1787)  wrought 
a  momentous  change.  Persuaded  of  the  low  estate  to 
which  the  opera  had  been  reduced,  Gluck  stood  for  a  re- 
turn to  first  principles;  he  advocated  a  ruthless  sacrifice 
of  the  conventionalities  which  through  the  vanity  of  sing- 
ers and  the  love  of  sensation  on  the  part  of  the  public  had 


Chbistoph  WrLLiBALD  Gluck. 

grown  up  around  the  opera  and  the  placing  of  it  upon  its 
original  foundation  of  the  drama.  He  was  a  man  of  mature 
years  when  in  1762  he  put  his  theories  into  practice  by  the 
production  of  Orfeo  in  Vienna.  He  had  composed  many 
operas  in  the  prevailing  Italian  style,  but  his  judgment, 
formed  by  extensive  study  and  travel,  convinced  him  of 
the  essential  weakness  of  that  school :  its  concentration 
upon  the  purely  musical  element.  This  he  saw  made  of  the 
opera  a  puppet-show  for  the  display  of  vocal  art  which, 
great  as  it  was  from  a  technical  point  of  view,  was  me- 
chanical and  meretricious  in  character.     He  was  not  alone 


2l6  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

in  his  condemnation ;  critics  and  thinkers  such  as  Addison 
and  Steele  in  England,  Diderot  in  France,  Marcello  and 
Algarotti  in  Italy  had  employed  the  varied  resources  of  wit, 
satire  and  reason  to  expose  the  follies  and  inconsistencies 
of  the  opera.  From  the  nature  of  the  case,  however,  they 
could  work  no  change;  most  of  them  were  literary  men 
who  could  criticise  but  not  create. 

Gluck's  Travels  and  their  Influence. — Gluck  had  traveled 
much.  There  was  hardly  an  art-centre  in  Europe  from 
Copenhagen  to  Naples  which  he  had  not  visited  for  the 
purpose  of  bringing  out  his  works.  In  England,  he  had 
heard  Handel's  oratorios,  which  profoundly  impressed  him ; 
in  Paris,  he  had  made  acquaintance  with  Rameau's  operas. 
Both  of  these  masters  exercised  a  strong  influence  over 
his  change  of  style ;  the  former  by  his  powerful  handling 
of  the  chorus  which  had  been  practically  banished  from 
the  Italian  stage,  the  latter  by  his  consistent  adherence  to 
dramatic  truth  of  expression.  He  was  in  addition  a  zealous 
student  of  art  and  literature  in  all  their  phases ;  he  brought 
to  his  problem  not  only  the  ear  of  the  musician  but  the  in- 
tellect of  the  scholar. 

"Orfeo." — In  Orfeo,  Gluck  took  the  same  stand  which 
Peri  had  taken  in  his  opera  on  the  same  myth  a  century 
and  a  half  before:  the  illustration  of  the  drama  through 
music  which  should  give  it  a  poignancy  of  expression  denied 
to  the  spoken  word.  The  later  composer  had  the  immense 
advantage  of  musical  resources  undreamed-of  at  the  time 
of  the  Florentine  opera,  but  both  stand  upon  the  same 
artistic  platform.  It  was  a  daring  task  that  Gluck  had 
attempted.  Orpheus,  robbed  by  death  of  Euridice,  seeks  to 
regain  her  by  forcing  entrance  to  the  place  of  departed 
spirits.  On  his  descent  to  the  nether  world  he  is  confronted 
by  a  band  of  demons  who  bar  his  way,  but  finally  melted  to 
tears  by  the  pathos  of  his  song,  they  allow  him  to  pass.  The 
composer  must  make  this  appeal  adequate  to  the  effect; 
anything  less  would  result  in  an  anti-climax  totally  disas- 
trous to  dramatic  illusion.  Gluck  passed  this  test  trium- 
phantly.    Even  today  this  scene  remains  one  of  the  most 


INFLUENCE   OF    GLUCK.  2.1J 

powerful  known  to  the  operatic  stage.  Orfeo,  in  its  strength 
and  simpHcity,  was  so  opposed  to  the  taste  of  the  day  that 
its  victory  was  by  no  means  unquestioned,  but  it  soon  won 
universal  recognition  and  with  its  successor,  Alceste  (1767), 
is  the  oldest  opera  heard  at  the  present  day. 

Gluck  in  Paris. — Alceste  was  followed  by  Paride  ed  Elena 
(Paris  and  Helen),  but  the  severity  of  the  new  style  aroused 
such  a  storm  of  hostile  criticism  that  the  discouraged  com- 
poser turned  to  Paris  with  his  Iphigenie  en  Aidide  (Iphi- 
genia  in  Aulis)  to  a  French  text  after  Racine's  tragedy. 
Marie  Antoinette,  then  the  wife  of  the  Dauphin,  had  been 
his  pupil  in  Vienna,  and  through  her  influence  the  opera 
was  produced,  though  not  without  arousing  one  of  the 
most  bitter  wars  in  musical  annals.  Twelve  years  before, 
Italian  Opera  Buffa  had  gained  a  footing  in  Paris.  Its 
lightness,  melodic  grace,  and  witty  dramatic  situations  cap- 
tivated many  who  immediately  attacked  the  prevailing  type 
of  French  opera,  of  which  Rameau  was  the  head,  as  heavy 
and  unmusical.  This  opinion  was  strenuously  combated  by 
others  who  upheld  native  art.  Thus  there  were  two 
strongly-opposed  parties,  one  defending  the  Italian,  the 
other  the  French  school  of  opera.  After  Rameau's  death, 
the  Italian  party  was  in  the  ascendency,  but  on  Gluck's 
arrival  with  a  French  opera  he  was  taken  as  the  represen- 
tative of  the  national  school.  Piccini,  the  most  popular  Ital- 
ian composer  of  the  day,  was  pitted  against  him,  but  it 
needed  only  the  production  of  Gluck's  Iphigenie  en  Tauride 
(Iphigenia  in  Tauris)  to  crush  his  rival's  claims.  This  was 
his  last  great  work.  He  retired  to  Vienna,  which  was  his 
home  until  his  death. 

Influence  of  G-luck. — The  influence  exerted  by  Gluck  was 
far-reaching  and  permanent.  The  reform  he  initiated  did 
not  create  a  school — it  did  far  more ;  it  profoundly  affected 
all  schools.  With  no  immediate  followers  among  the  com- 
posers of  his  time  he  stood  alone,  as  he  stands  today,  one 
of  the  most  commanding  figures  in  musical  history.  His 
Orfeo  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  by  rescuing  a  great 
and  important  form  of  art  from  a  decadence  which  had 


2l8  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

robbed  it  of  legitimate  power  and  effect.  The  opera  more 
than  any  other  form  of  music  is  dependent  upon  popular 
favor  for  existence.  It  is  therefore  peculiarly  susceptible  to 
influences  which  tend  to  lower  artistic  standards.  Gluck, 
however,  made  it  impossible  that  it  should  ever  again  sink 
to  the  level  of  the  mass  of  crudities  and  puerilities  from 
which  he  lifted  it. 

Reference. 
Oxford  History  of  Music,  Vol.  IV. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Give  an  account  of  the  introduction  of  opera  into  Ger- 
many, 

Why  did  German  composers  develop  slowly? 

Describe  the  early  German  opera  forms. 

Who  was  the  chief  agent  in  a  change  ? 

Give  an  account  of  Handel's  work  in  connection  with 
German  opera. 

What  had  been  the  influence  of  singers? 

What  were  the  influences  to  cause  Gluck  to  set  about 
opera  reform? 

Give  an  account  of  "Orfeo." 

Why  did  Gluck  go  to  Paris  and  what  success  did  he 
have  there? 

What  was  the  influence  of  Gluck  upon  the  future  of  the 
opera  ? 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  Thirty  Years'  War  in  Germany 
interfered  with  the  development  of  the  Opera.  Frederick 
the  Great's  grandfather  and  father  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  Prussian  kingdom.  In  France,  Gluck's  works  carry 
us  up  to  the  period  of  social  and  political  agitation  pre- 
ceding the  French  Revolution.  In  England,  the  House  of 
Hanover  is  becoming  more  firmly  established  on  the  throne: 
in  America,  the  period  is  that  of  the  struggles  between  the 
French  and  English  colonists. 


LESSON  XXIII. 

Mozart  to  Rossini. 

The  Opera  after  Gluck. — After  Gluck  the  first  great  name 
is  that  of  Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart  ( 1756- 1 791).  Haydn 
had  indeed  written  a  number  of  operas,  but  they  were,  in 
the  main,  light  in  character  and  exercised  no  influence  what- 
ever on  the  development  of  the  form.  At  the  age  of  twelve, 
Mozart  had  composed  two  operas,  but  the  first  to  receive 
public  performance  was  Mitridate,  Re  di  Ponto  (Mithri- 
dates.  King  of  Pontus),  which  was  produced  at  Milan  two 
years  later  under  his  own  direction.  This  was  followed  by 
others,  but  these  early  works  do  not  call  for  any  extended 
mention.  Though  they  abound  in  melody  and  show  a  ma- 
turity remarkable  in  so  young  a  composer,  they  were 
frankly  written  to  please  the  taste  of  the  time  and  do  not 
in  any  essentials  depart  from  the  accepted  Italian  style  then 
in  favor,  as  fixed  by  Scarlatti  and  his  contemporaries. 

Gluck  and  Mozart  Compared. — It  was  not  until  Idomeneo, 
Re  di  Creta  (Idomeneus,  King  of  Crete)  was  brought  out 
during  the  Carnival  season  of  1781,  that  he  demonstrated 
fully  the  gifts  which  made  him  the  first  dramatic  composer 
of  his  time.  In  this  he  shows  a  great  advance  over  the  con- 
ventional opera  of  the  period  and  an  approach  to  the  ideals 
of  Gluck,  though  neither  in  Idomeneo  nor  in  any  of  his 
later  operas  did  he  attempt  to  embody  these  ideals  in  the 
uncompromising  form  chosen  by  the  older  master.  Though 
contemporaries,  no  two  composers  could  well  be  more  un- 
like in  character,  temperament  and  methods  than  Gluck  and 
Mozart.  The  one,  a  man  of  years,  ripened  through  travel 
and  study,  conditioned  his  music  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  drama;  the  other,  a  youth  of  no  great  intel- 
lectual endowments  aside  from  his  art,  but  aflame  with  the 

(219) 


220  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

fire  of  genius,  felt  the  drama  in  terms  of  music.  Thus  they 
approached  the  task  from  opposite  sides.  Not  that  Gluck 
was  without  feeling  or  ]\Iozart  without  intellect ;  it  was 
simply  a  case  of  the  dramatist  and  the  musician  solving 
the  problem  each  in  his  own  way.  At  the  same  time  it  was 
impossible  that  Gluck's  theories  should  be  entirely  without 
influence  on  Mozart.  Even  a  genius  must  learn  from  his 
environment,  and  Gluck's  position,  though  sharply  disputed 
by  the  Italian  school  to  which  Mozart  belonged,  could  not 
be  ignored  by  the  younger  man.  Then,  too,  Mozart  had 
been  in  Paris  during  the  height  of  the  Gluck-Piccini  con- 
troversy, and  it  is  known  that  he  had  made  a  close  study 
of  Alceste,  to  which  Gluck,  in  the  form  of  a  dedication  to 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  had  given  a  preface  containing 
a  clear  exposition  of  his  principles  of  dramatic  composition. 
It  is  hard  to  say,  however,  what  direction  Mozart's  dramatic 
course  might  have  taken  had  his  life  not  been  cut  so  piti- 
lessly short  and  if  his  outward  circumstances  had  been  less 
constrained.  He  was  obliged  to  adapt  himself  to  Italian 
influences  which  at  that  time  were  all  powerful. 

The  Singspiel. — As  already  mentioned,  the  first  attempts 
at  German  opera  took  the  form  of  the  Singspiel,  but  it  grad- 
ually died  out  during  the  invasion  of  Italian  opera  in  Ger- 
many. Its  revival  and  development  to  a  higher  standard 
was  due  to  Johann  Adam  Hiller  (1728-1804),  who  received 
his  first  impulse  through  an  English  ballad  opera  of  a  far- 
cical nature,  "The  Devil  to  Pay."  This  was  translated  into 
German  and  given  (1743)  at  Berlin  with  the  original  Eng- 
lish melodies  taken  from  popular  ballads.  Hiller  set  this 
translation  to  music  and  followed  it  with  many  others 
which  soon  acquired  great  vogue ;  one  or  two,  for  example, 
Der  Dorfbarbier  (The  Village  Barber),  are  still  heard  in 
Germany.  Hiller,  though  one  of  the  most  learned  musicians 
of  the  day,  the  founder  of  the  celebrated  Gewandhaus  Con- 
certs in  Leipzig  and  editor  of  the  first  musical  periodical 
ever  published,  adopted  a  simple,  natural  Folk-style  in  these 
operettas,  as  they  were  also  called.  Goethe  was  particularly 
interested  in  this  revival  of  a  national  form  of  opera;    it 


MOZART  S   OPERAS.  221 

stimulated  him  to  the  writing  of  the  ballads  which  in  turn 
acted  so  powerfully  in  developing  the  German  song  under 
the  hands  of  Loewe,  Schubert,  Schumann  and  others. 

Mozart's  First  German  Opera. — Emperor  Joseph  II,  wish- 
ing to  establish  the  Singspiel  in  Vienna,  commissioned  Mo- 
zart to  write  a  German  opera  of  a  similar  style.  This  re- 
sulted in  Die  Entfiihrung  aiis  dem  Serail  (The  Elopement 
from  the  Seraglio),  and  the  composer's  hopes  of  founding  a 
national  school  of  opera  were  high.  Unfortunately,  he  was 
doomed  to  disappointment.  Though  Die  Entfiihrung  was 
received  with  enthusiasm,  popular  favor  was  averse  to  opera 
in  any  other  tongue  than  Italian ;  the  German  theatre  was 
open  only  a  few  years  and  with  the  exception  of  Die  Zauher- 
fidte,  his  future  operas  were  composed  to  Italian  texts. 

His  Later  Operas. — Le  Nozze  di  Figaro  (The  Marriage  of 
Figaro — 1786),  Don  Giovanni  (Don  Juan — 1788),  Die 
Zanberfldte  (The  Magic  Flute — 1791)  rank  as  Mozart's 
greatest  operas.  Considered  as  music  alone,  the  last  reaches 
a  height  which  gives  an  idea  of  what  he  might  have  done 
in  nationalizing  the  opera  if  he  had  been  spared  a  score  of 
years  longer;  but  its  confused,  irrational  plot  stands  in  the 
way  of  its  popularization.  The  same  objection  holds  good 
of  Cosi  fan  Tiitte  (Women  are  All  Alike — 1790),  which 
contains  some  of  his  most  exquisite  music. 

Characteristics  of  Mozart's  Operas. — Mozart's  conception 
of  the  opera  is  that  of  the  musician,  not  of  the  dramatist. 
This  is  plain  from  the  indiflferent  texts  he  willingly  accep- 
ted, yet  so  universal  was  his  genius  that  he  fused  the  two 
elements  into  a  complete  and  consistent  whole.  Such  a 
union  of  clearly-cut  characterization  and  musical  beauty 
is  unknown  in  the  opera.  He  made  his  characters  eternal 
types  by  means  of  music  so  apposite  to  their  individuality 
that  it  seems  in  each  case  to  spring  from  inward  necessity, 
yet  which  as  music  has  never  been  surpassed  for  intrinsic 
grace  and  charm.  Italian  melody  in  its  best  estate  on  a 
foundation  of  German  depth  and  solidity  is  its  distinguish- 
ing characteristic.  This  characterization  is  confined,  how- 
ever, to  details  and  personages ;   of  the  development  of  the 


222  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

drama  as  a  whole  he  apparently  had  but  little  idea.  This, 
however,  was  not  called  for  by  the  taste  of  the  times ;  the 
opera  was  not  considered  from  a  dramatic  standpoint,  save 
by  Gluck  and  the  composers  of  the  French  school ;  the 
libretto  furnished  a  series  of  situations  suitable  for  musical 
illustration,  not  a  consistent  and  logical  dramatic  action. 

Their  Significance  to  German  Art. — Mozart  marks  the 
highest  point  reached  by  the  opera  of  the  i8th  century ;  he 
also  marks  the  passing  of  Italian  supremacy  in  Germany. 
The  Germans  were  already  masters  of  the  other  great 
forms,  the  Oratorio  and  the  Symphony ;  Gluck  and  Mozart 
captured  the  Opera  also  for  Germany,  though  it  was  not 
for  several  decades  after  Mozart's  death  that  German  opera 
rose  from  its  discredited  position  at  the  close  of  the  century. 

Beethoven's  Fidelio. — A  mighty  impulse  was  given  to  the 
development  of  a  national  school  by  the  production  of 
Fidelio  (1805),  Beethoven's  only  opera.  His  two  great 
predecessors  had  been  obliged  for  the  most  part  to  write 
their  operas  to  French  and  Italian  texts.  Beethoven  (1770- 
1827),  however,  showed  his  independence  and  sturdy  na- 
tional character  by  choosing  a  subject  totally  alien  to  the 
frivolous  intrigues  which  at  that  time  ruled  the  Viennese 
stage — a  story  of  heroic,  wifely  devotion — and  composed 
it  to  German  words  and  in  the  German  style;  that  is,  with 
dialogue  instead  of  recitative.  Essentially  symphonic  in 
character,  Fidelio  shows  the  sarrie  disregard  of  vocal  limi- 
tations which  characterizes  the  Ninth  Symphony  and  the 
Mass  in  D.  Difficult  for  the  singers,  it  was  still  more  dif- 
ficult for  the  public.  In  subject  and  treatment  it  was  above 
their  heads ;  they  turned  it  the  cold  shoulder  and  it  soon  dis- 
appeared from  the  boards.  An  appreciation  of  its  great- 
ness was  reserved  for  a  later  day. 

Italian  Composers  in  France  and  Germany. — The  popu- 
larity of  Italian  opera  outside  of  Italy  led  to  the  expatria- 
tion of  many  Italian  composers  who  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  in  France  and  Germany.  Among  these  Antonio 
Salieri  (1750-1825)  deserves  mention  for  his  career  in 
Vienna,  where  he  was  the  successful  rival  of  Mozart  in 


SPONTINI    AND    ROSSINI.  223 

court  favor  and  later  the  teacher  of  Beethoven.  More  im- 
portant was  Luigi  Cherubini  (1760-1842),  who  found  his 
way  to  Paris  just  before  the  Revokition.  A  master  of  the 
severe  contrapuntal  school,  which  was  then  passing  away, 
Beethoven  considered  him  the  first  composer  of  the  day 
for  the  stage  and  studied  his  works  zealously.  Cherubini 
was  present  at  the  first  performance  of  Pidelio,  which  shows 
strong  traces  of  the  influence  exerted  upon  Beethoven  by 
Les  Deux  Journees  (The  Two  Days,  known  in  Germany 
and  England  as  The  Water  Carrier),  Cherubini's  greatest 
opera.  The  two  were  on  intimate  terms  during  the  stay 
of  the  latter  in  Vienna  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  out 
several  of  his  operas.  There  was  much  in  common  be- 
tween them ;  the  Italian  had  the  solidity,  dignity  and  no- 
bility of  treatment  generally  associated  with  the  German 
character.  Beethoven's  choice  of  a  subject  for  his  opera 
was  doubtless  influenced  by  Les  Deux  Journees;  the  themes 
of  both  are  much  the  same,  involving  devotion  and  self- 
sacrifice  of  the  highest  order. 

Spontini  and  Rossini. — Another  Italian  composer  who 
went  first  to  France  and  afterward  to  Germany  was  Gasparo 
Spontini  (i 774-1 851),  who  with  La  V estate  (The  Vestal) 
enlarged  the  sphere  of  the  opera  in  Paris.  Spectacular 
and  pompous  in  character,  sonorous  and  powerful  in  in- 
strumentation, it  pointed  directly  to  the  type  of  grand  opera 
originated  by  Meyerbeer  nearly  a  generation  later.  In 
1820,  he  was  summoned  to  Berlin,  where  he  remained  as 
court  composer  and  conductor  for  twenty-two  years,  a 
period  coincident  with  the  most  significant  development  of 
the  German  school  of  opera.  Spontini  was  the  last  of  the 
many  Italians  who  had  for  a  century  and  a  half  borne  al- 
most uninterrupted  sway  in  Germany. 

The  most  brilliant  and  gifted  of  all  these  wandering  sons 
of  Italy  was  Gioacchino  Rossini  (1792-1868).  As  rich  in 
melody  as  Mozart,  though  of  a  less  refined  type,  he  owed 
more  to  nature  than  to  study.  His  first  successful  opera, 
Tancredi  (1813),  set  all  Italy  agog  with  the  freshness  and 
vivacity  of  its  airs,  and  it  was  not  long  before  he  was  the 


224  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

most  popular  composer  in  Europe.  Gifted  with  prodigious 
facility — in  one  period  of  eight  years  he  wrote  twenty 
operas — his  operas  ruled  all  stages  and  fixed  the  standard 
by  which  all  others  were  judged. 

Characteristics   of  Rossini's   Operas.  —  They   are,   on   the 
whole,  a  reversion  to  the  conventionalized  opera  of  Handel's 


GiOACCHiNO  Rossini. 

time  in  being  written  for  the  singer  to  exhibit  his  art  and 
not  to  express  the  significance  of  the  drama ;  this  notwith- 
standing their  undoubted  charm,  the  many  piquant  and 
original  touches  in  rhythm  and  harmony,  the  occasional  sug- 
gestive instrumentation.  An  intensely  florid  style  is  used 
not  only  in  the  biiffa  school  where  it  can  readily  be  justi- 
fied, but  in  operas  of  a  tragic  nature  where  it  is  manifestly 


LESSON    HELPS.  225 

out  of  place.  In  Semiramide,  for  instance,  a  story  of  bat- 
tle, murder  and  sudden  death  is  told  in  the  same  rippling 
rhythms  and  highly  ornamented  melodies  that  illustrate  the 
intrigues  of  his  Barbiere  di  Siviglia  (Barber  of  Seville), 
where  they  are  eminently  appropriate. 

His  Change  of  Style. — This  is  true,  however,  only  of  his 
works  composed  for  the  Italian  stage.  His  GuiUanmc  Tell 
(William  Tell),  produced  in  1829,  five  years  after  his  ar- 
rival in  Paris,  showed  the  influence  of  his  new  environ- 
ment by  an  almost  startling  change  of  style.  Elevated  and 
dramatic  in  treatment,  shorn  of  redundant  ornament  as 
befits  the  character  of  the  subject — taken  from  Schiller's 
play  of  the  same  name — it  remains  his  greatest  achieve 
ment;  at  least  in  serious  opera.  It  was  also  his  last  work 
for  the  stage.  It  is  not  known  by  what  strange  caprice  he 
practically  closed  his  career  as  composer  at  the  age  of 
thirty-nine. 

Reference. 

Oxford  History  of  Music,  Vol.  V. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Name  the  most  prominent  successor  of  Gluck  in  opera. 

Compare  the  two. 

Describe  the  Singspiel. 

Name  some  of  Mozart's  operas. 

Mention  their  characteristics  and  influence. 

Give  an  account  of  Beethoven's  work  in  Opera. 

Tell  about  Salieri,  Cherubini,   Spontini,   Rossini. 

Give   the   characteristics   of   Rossini's   operas. 

What  change  in  his  style  is  evident  in  "William  Tell"? 

We  now  approach  the  period  preceding  the  American 
and  the  French  Revolutions  which  so  greatly  afifected  the 
masses  of  Europe,  an  influence  extended  by  the  wars  of 
Napoleon.  Music  shows  traces  of  the  powerful  forces  at 
work,  losing  the  former  artificiality  and  becoming  more 
and  more,  in  the  hands  of  Beethoven,  an  expression  of 
dramatic  and  personal  feeling. 


LESSON  XXIV. 

The  Oratorio. 

Oratorio  in  Italy  after  Carissimi. — After  the  beginning 
made  by  Carissimi,  the  next  work  of  importance  in  Oratorio 
is  that  of  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  who  established  the  Aria  form 
as  explained  in  the  study  of  the  Opera.  The  composers  of 
the  Italian  school  of  the  last  part  of  the  17th  and  the  early 
part  of  the  i8th  century  used  practically  the  same  methods 
in  Opera  and  Oratorio,  the  difference  being  mainly  in  the 
character  of  the  text,  and  in  the  earnestness  or  religious 
feeling  of  the  composer.  Scarlatti  is  also  signalized  by  his 
improvements  in  the  Recitative,  which  resulted  in  several 
forms  made  use  of  by  his  successors,  Recitativo  Secco  and 
Accompanied  Recitative.  He  wrote  ten  oratorios.  Con- 
temporaries whose  work  should  be  mentioned  are  Antonio 
CaJdara  (1678-1763)  and  Leonardo  Leo  (1694-1746),  a  pu- 
pil of  Scarlatti,  who  wrote  nearly  a  hundred  works  for  the 
church,  the  chief  one  being  the  oratorio,  Santa  Elena  al 
Calvario  and  a  Miserere  for  a  double  choir.  He  was  strong 
in  his  writing  for  chorus,  making  splendid  use  of  the  fugal 
style.  Another  contemporary  of  the  first  rank  was  Ales- 
sandro Stradella  (1645-1681),  whose  oratorio,  San  Giovanni 
Battista  (St.  John  the  Baptist)  is  a  most  beautiful  work. 
It  contains  a  free  treatment  of  the  accompanying  instru- 
ments, the  arias  are  clear  and  well-designed,  the  chorus 
writing  for  five  parts  is  eflfective  as  well  as  ingenious,  and 
the  work  as  a  whole  shows  considerable  power  of  dramatic 
expression,  forming  a  sort  of  transition  between  Scarlatti 
and  Handel.  Stradella  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of 
Carissimi. 

(226) 


THE   CHORALE.  227 

Oratorio  in  Germany.  —  In  Oratorio  as  in  Opera,  the 
style  spread  to  other  countries,  there,  in  the  case  of  the 
Oratorio,  ultimately  to  find  a  more  congenial  home ;  for 
the  Oratorio,  in  Italy  after  the  time  of  Stradella,  seemed  tc 
lose  hold  on  composers  and  public.  The  latter  did  not  grasp 
the  fact  that  the  Oratorio  had  within  it  one  element,  the 
chorus,  to  give  to  it  a  definite  individuality.  They  submit- 
ted to  the  public's  preference  for  solo  singing  and  made  up 
their  oratorios  largely  of  conventional  arias — thus  inviting 
comparison  with  the  Opera,  and  reserved  their  writing  in 
choral  form  for  their  works  for  the  Church  service,  such 
as  psalms,  manificats,  masses  and  motets.  In  Germany, 
the  attitude  of  the  people  toward  religious  music,  doubtless 
owing  to  the  Reformation  as  well  as  to  the  serious  nature 
of  the  people,  was  much  more  favorable  than  in  Italy.  This 
temperament  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  when  German  com- 
posers cast  about  for  themes  for  their  oratorios  they  seemed 
to  choose  the  story  of  the  Passion.  The  oldest  example  of 
the  German  Oratorio  is  "The  Resurrection  of  Christ,"  writ- 
ten by  Heinrich  Schuetz  (1585-1672),  a  pupil  of  Giovanni 
Gabrieli,  which  was  produced  at  Dresden  in  1623.  The 
narrative  portions  were  committed  almost  entirely  to  the 
chorus.  We  mention  also  a  setting  of  the  Passion,  by 
Johann  Sebastiani,  published  in  1672,  which  contains  inter- 
spersed chorales,  sung  as  arias  by  one  voice  with  violin 
accompaniment,  and  by  Reinhard  Keiser  (1674-1739). 

Use  of  the  Chorale. — A  step  in  advance  was  taken  when 
German  composers  began  to  use  the  chorale  of  the  Ger- 
man Protestant  Church  as  the  subject  for  contrapuntal 
elaboration,  a  tendency  shown  in  the  work  of  Sebastiani 
referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  The  Chorale  had 
absorbed  into  itself  the  spirit  of  the  Volkslied,  and  its  use 
supplied  the  medium  for  the  public  to  enter  fully  into  the 
spirit  of  the  oratorio.  Two  composers  who  developed  the 
"Passion  Music"  idea  to  its  height,  Karl  Heinrich  Graun 
(1701-1759)  and  Johann  Sebastian  Bach,  made  the  Chorale 
an  integral  part  of  their  works.  The  greatest  work  in 
oratorio  form  written  by  Graun  was  called  Der  Tod  Jesu 


228  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

(The  Death  of  Jesus),  which  was  first  produced  in  the 
Cathedral  at  BerHn  in  1755.  This  work  consists  of  reci- 
tatives, airs  and  choruses,  the  fugal  treatment  of  the  lat- 
ter being  admirable  in  point  of  clearness  of  design  and 
breadth  of  form.  Graun  used  in  this  oratorio  six  chorales. 
Der  Tod  Jcsu,  owing  to  a  bequest,  is  still  given  in  Berlin. 

Bach. — The  greatest  of  all  the  settings  of  the  Passion 
are  tliose  by  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  (1685-1750).  The  first 
work  in  this  style  by  Bach  was  the  one  according  to  "St. 
John,"  in  1723,  first  performed  on  Good  Friday,  1724,  at 
Leipzig.  This  work,  fine  as  it  is,  must  yield  to  the  second 
setting,  according  to  "St.  Matthew,"  first  produced  on  Good 
Friday,  1729,  afterward  revised  and  given  again  in  1740. 
A,  few  notes  on  the  "Passion  according  to  St.  Matthew" 
will  serve  for  both  works.  The  characters  introduced  are 
Jesus,  Judas,  Peter,  Pilate,  the  Apostles  and  the  People. 
Certain  reflections  on  the  narrative  are  interpreted  by  a 
chorus.  The  text  which  furnishes  the  narrative  is  assigned 
to  the  principal  tenor.  Fifteen  chorales  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  are  introduced,  and  in  the  singing  of  these  the 
general  congregation  was  expected  to  join.  The  choruses 
contain  powerful  and  dramatic  vocal  effects,  and  though 
not  strictly  fugal  are  intricate  in  their  part-writing.  A 
double  chorus  is  used,  each  chorus  having  a  separate  or- 
chestra and  organ  accompaniment.  The  performance  of 
this  work  (St.  Matthew  Passion)  was  restricted  to  Leipzig 
in  the  i8th  century,  and  was  discontinued  altogether  in  the 
19th  until  Mendelssohn  revived  it  in  1829.  It  is  given 
very  frequently  at  the  present  day  during  the  Lenten  season, 
in  part  or  in  full.  The  "Christmas  Oratorio"  (1734)  is 
really  a  series  of  cantatas  for  each  of  the  first  days  of  the 
Christmas  week,  and  contains  no  new  ideas  so  far  as  form 
is  concerned. 

Stabat  Mater. — In  connection  with  the  "Passion"  reference 
should  be  made  to  the  Latin  hymn,  "Stabat  Mater,"  which 
has  been  m.ade  the  subject  of  treatment  in  oratorio  form, 
by  Palestrina,  Giovanni  Battista  Pergolesi  (1710-1736)  for 
soprano  and  contralto  accompanied  by  strings  and  organ, 


UA  NDEL.  229 

Emanuele  d'Astorga  (1681-1736)  for  four  voices  with  in- 
strumental accompaniment,  the  more  modern  work,  in  large 
form,  by  Grioacchino  Rossini  (1792-1868),  most  beautiful  as 
music  if  partaking  too  much,  as  critics  say,  of  the  sensuous, 
and  the  magnificent  setting  of  Antonin  Dvorak  ( 184 1- 1904). 
This  work  has  been  placed,  by  musicians  and  the  public,  in 
the  category  of  the  world's  masterpieces  of  choral  writing. 
George  Friedrich  Handel  (1685-1759). — We  now  come 
to  Bach's  contemporary,  the  greatest  name  in  the  history  of 
the  Oratorio,  to  the  composer  who  brought  to  his  work  a 
musical  learning  equal  to  that  of  Bach,  German  earnestness 
and  mastery  of  contrapuntal  science,  tempered  by  knowledge 
of  and  experience  in  Italian  vocal  methods,  producing  sim- 
ple, clear  melody  supported  by  rich,  firm  harmonies,  a  com- 
plete mastery  of  the  orchestra  of  the  day,  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  value  of  the  chorus  in  working  out  dramatic 
effects;  and  this  combination  was  offered  a  congenial  field 
for  labor  in  England,  one  of  the  great  Protestant  countries 
of  Europe,  with  a  deep  reverence  for  religion  and  for  the 
narratives  of  the  Bible  and  the  truths  and  lessons  they  en- 
force. This  latter  point  is  strikingly  present  in  the  texts  of 
Handel's  oratorios;  the  symbolic  meaning  of  the  narrative 
is  clearly  indicated  and  made  the  central  thought  of  the 
work,  producing  a  remarkable  effect  of  Unity.  As  a  writer 
has  said :  "Handel  preaches  through  the  voices  of  his 
chorus."  The  orchestra  for  which  Handel  wrote  was 
smaller  than  the  full  orchestra  to  which  we  are  accustomed 
today.  The  proportion  of  string  players  to  the  whole  num- 
ber of  players  was  smaller,  but  on  the  other  side,  more  than 
two  oboes  and  bassoons  were  used;  flutes  were  most  fre- 
quently used  as  solo  instruments  or  to  double  the  part  of 
the  oboes ;  the  clarinet  Handel  never  used,  doubtless  be- 
cause of  its  imperfections,  which  were  not  remedied  until 
later;  the  brass  instruments  used  were  trumpets  with  ket- 
tle drums  for  their  natural  bass,  horns  and  the  three  trom- 
bones, alto,  tenor  and  bass;  other  instruments  of  a  soft- 
voiced  quality,  like  the  harp,  viola  da  gamba,  were  occa- 
sionally used  for  obligato  accompaniments.    The  organ  was 


230  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

always  used,  the  part  being  written  according  to  the  figured 
bass  system,  and  the  harpsichord  was  used  by  the  conductor. 
The  reader  who  is  able  to  analyze  one  of  Handel's  oratorio 
scores  will  be  surprised  to  note  the  superb  effects  he  makes 
with  comparatively  small  resources.  Compared  with  the 
polyphonic  writing  of  his  predecessors  and  his  great  con- 
temporary, Bach,  his  fugues  seem  light  and  simple,  but 
that  very  thing  gives  them  their  admirable  clearness  and 
purity ;  compared  with  later  works,  his  diatonic  progress- 
ions and  harmonies  based  on  common  chords  seem  colorless, 
especially  so  in  contrast  with  the  kaleidoscopic  chromatic 
figures  and  strongly  dissonant  harmonies  of  the  newer 
school;  yet  in  this  point  is  the  strength  of  Handel's  works 
with  the  public ;  simplicity  is  valued  more  highly  than  com- 
plexity, naturalness  rather  than  the  indications  of  science. 
Handel  wrote  seventeen  works  that  can  be  classed  as 
oratorios.  The  first  of  these  was  "Esther,"  in  1 720,  revised 
and  brought  out  anew  in  1732,  In  1733  "Deborah,"  per- 
haps best-known  for  a  powerful  double  chorus,  was  offered 
to  the  public;  "Athaliah"  in  the  same  year.  In  1739  came 
"Saul"  and  "Israel  in  Egypt,"  the  former  best-known  today 
for  its  famous  "Dead  March,"  the  latter  for  the  music  de- 
scriptive of  the  plagues.  In  1741,  he  wrote  his  greatest 
oratorio  "The  Messiah,"  which  was  first  performed  pub- 
licly, April  13,  1742,  in  Dublin.  In  this  we  find  a  certain 
reflective  character  which  recalls  the  Passion  music  of  the 
German  school.  The  only  other  oratorio  which  is  still 
given  in  anything  like  entirety  is  "Judas  Maccabaeus" 
(1747)  ;  other  works  from  which  certain  portions  are  still 
in  use  are  "Samson"  (1743),  "Solomon"  (1749),  "Theo- 
dora" (1750),  a  work  which  Handel  considered  his  best, 
and  "Jephtha"  (1752).  Great  as  was  Handel's  fame  in 
England,  the  character  of  his  works  and  the  forms  he  used 
made  little  or  no  impression  upon  German  and  Italian  com- 
posers. Johann  Adolph  Hasse  (1699- 1783),  Niccolo  Porpora 
(1686-1767),  Antonio  Sacchini  (1734-1786),  Giovanni  Pai- 
siello  (1741-1816),  Niccolo  Jommelli  (1714-1774)  and 
Pietro   Guglielmi    (1727-1804)    wrote  in  the  Italian   style, 


HAYDN,    MOZART,    BEETHOVEN.  23I 

and  their  works  are,  properly  speaking,  concert  oratorios, 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  opera  save  by  the  text. 

Franz  Joseph  Haydn. — The  next  name  of  importance  is 
that  of  Haydn  (1732-1809),  who  wrote  "The  Creation"  and 
"The  Seasons"  toward  the  end  of  a  long  life,  after  his  work 
as  a  composer  had  given  him  a  command  of  musical  re- 
sources excelled  only  by  Beethoven,  who  did  not  equal  him  in 
skill  in  writing  effectively  and  suitably  for  voices.  It  was  in 
1798  that  "The  Creation"  was  first  given  in  Vienna.  The 
score  abounds  in  effective  writing  for  the  solo  voices,  in 
the  florid  style  and  in  the  conventional  aria  form,  and  in 
brilliant  choruses  which,  however,  cannot  compare  in  dig- 
nity and  breadth  with  those  of  Handel.  The  orchestral 
accompaniments  are  much  more  elaborate  than  those  used 
by  Handel,  as  can  naturally  be  expected  from  a  composer 
who  had  given  his  greatest  efforts  to  the  development  of 
instrumental  music.  "The  Seasons"  was  first  performed  in 
Vienna  in  1801.  It  proved  as  successful  as  "The  Creation." 
Haydn's  simple,  genial  nature  is  apparent  in  this  beautiful 
work,  really  too  light  to  bear  the  name  of  oratorio,  which 
has  such  close  association  with  works  of  a  deep,  religious 
character. 

Mozart  and  Beethoven. — As  the  orchestra  developed  under 
the  masters  of  tone  and  dramatic  effects,  Mozart,  Gluck 
and  Beethoven,  so  the  works  in  oratorio  form  took  on  a 
different  texture.  In  the  earlier  periods,  the  accompani- 
ments were  subordinate,  the  interest  was  centred  in  the 
voices.  But  as  composers  realized  the  possibilities  of  the 
constantly-improving  orchestra  and  the  opportunities  for 
effective  combinations  of  voices  and  instruments,  the  ten- 
dency became  more  and  more  marked  to  elaborate  the  in- 
strumental parts  and  to  create  an  ensemble  more  compli- 
cated and  gorgeous,  based  upon  the  orchestra  and  its  tone- 
color  scheme  rather  than  on  pure  vocal  effects.  Mozart's 
"Requiem"  (1791),  written  just  before  the  composer's 
death,  brings  into  use  the  most  powerful  dramatic  resources 
of  orchestra  and  voices  to  portray  the  spirit  of  the  "mass 
for  the  dead."     In  oratorio,  as  in  opera,  Beethoven  wrote 


2^2  THE    HISTORY    OP  MUSIC. 

but  one  work,  "The  Mount  of  Olives"  (1803).  The  style 
is  florid  and  operatic,  somewhat  in  the  style  of  the  Italian 
viomposers;  the  resources  of  the  orchestra  are  drawn  upon 
more  extensively  than  marked  the  methods  of  Haydn.  The 
chorus  is  freely  used,  the  "Hallelujah"  being  the  strongest 
movement.  The  choral  movements  in  the  Ninth  Symphony 
suggest  what  Beethoven  might  have  done  had  he  set  him- 
self to  writing  an  oratorio  in  greater  submission  to  the 
capacity  of  the  human  voice. 

Spohr. — From  now  on,  oratorio  composition  is  associated 
with  the  masters  of  instrumental  music,  the  orchestra  is 
drawn  upon  for  its  richest  and  most  powerful  resources  to 
work  out  the  emotional  and  dramatic  qualities  of  the  texts ; 
it  is  now  no  longer  a  mere  accompanying  instrument ;  it 
is  in  the  highest  degree  essential  to  the  effects  designed  by 
the  composer.  Lndwig  Spohr  (1784-1859),  a  great  violinist, 
wrote  his  first  oratorio,  "Das  Jiingste  Gericht"  (The  Last 
Judgment),  when  he  was  but  twenty -eight  years  old.  A 
later  work  produced  in  1826,  goes  by  the  English  name 
"The  Last  Judgment,"  although  that  is  not  the  literal  trans- 
lation of  the  German  title  Die  Letzten  Dinge.  In  this  work 
we  find  the  romantic  idea  clearly  in  evidence.  The  com- 
poser's style  had  been  developed  and  individualized  by  his 
long  experience  as  player  and  conductor ;  he  was  a  master 
of  the  resources  of  instrumentation,  conversant  both  as 
composer  and  conductor  with  the  limitations  of  voices — 
he  wrote  a  number  of  operas — so  that  he  was  prepared  for 
the  creation  of  a  work  which  has  a  character  of  its  own. 
A  striking  feature  of  this  oratorio  is  the  frequent  use  of 
chromatic  progressions,  which  is  indeed  a  characteristic  of 
Spohr's  writing. 

Mendelssohn. — The  next  great  composer  in  Oratorio  was  a 
German ;  like  him  also  his  works  had  their  greatest  recep- 
tion in  England,  Felix  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy  (1809- 1847). 
His  first  work,  "St.  Paul,"  was  given  at  Diisseldorf  in  1836. 
His  greatest  oratorio,  one  that  ranks  with  Handel's  "Mes- 
siah" in  public  favor,  is  "Elijah,"  which  was  written  for 
the  Birmingham,  England,  Festival.    It  was  first  produced 


MENDELSSOHN.  233 

in  1846.  As  a  diligent  and  enthusiastic  student  of  Bach,  it 
seems  natural  that  Mendelssohn  should  have  adopted  the 
great  master's  methods.  In  style  "St.  Paul"  and  "Elijah" 
show  leanings  toward  Bach  and  the  German  oratorio  rather 
than  toward  Handel.  Mendelssohn,  who  produced  Bach's 
"Passion  according  to  St.  Matthew"  in  Berlin,  in  1827,  was 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  plan  of  the  German  oratorio, 
a  mingling  of  narrative,  dramatic  and  meditative  or  reflec- 
tive elements,  and  especially  the  Chorale  to  represent  the 
Church,  the  chorus  being,  properly  speaking,  a  part  of  the 
dramatis  personce,  representing  masses  of  people  who  share 
in  the  action,  while  the  congregation  represents  the  re- 
flective element.  He  uses  a  fugal  style  quite  freely  in  his 
choruses,  but  a  strict  fugue,  in  the  style  of  Handel,  is  rare, 
as  the  composer's  feeling  for  emotional  effects  demands  a 
freer  style;  the  accompaniments  are  elaborate,  partaking 
of  the  dramatic  element  and  drawing  upon  the  fullest  re- 
sources of  the  orchestra.  Mendelssohn  had  started  the 
composition  of  another  oratorio,  "Christus,"  on  the  lines  of 
the  "Passion"  music  of  Bach,  but  died  before  the  work  was 
completed.  His  "Hymn  of  Praise"  (1840),  a  large  choral 
work  that  is  occasionally  sung,  well  represents  Mendels- 
sohn's skill  in  combining  vocal  and  orchestral  effect.  Rie- 
mann  calls  it  a  symphony-cantata,  Parry  says  it  "combines 
the  qualities  of  a  symphony  and  of  an  oratorio." 

References. 
Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  articles  on 
Oratorio  and  on  composers  named  in  this  lesson. 

Parry. — Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,  Chapters  VH  and 

xni. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Give  the  names  of  the  Italian  composers  who  followed 
Carissimi  in  the  Oratorio. 

What  contributed  to  make  Germany  a  congenial  field  for 
Oratorio  ? 

Who  are  the  early  composers  of  the  "Passion"  music? 

Give  an  account  of  Bach's  work  in  Oratorio. 


234  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Give  the  names  of  the  leading  composers  of  the  "Stabat 
Mater." 

Describe  Handel's  orchestra. 

Mention  Handel's  most  important  works  in  Oratorio  form. 

Give  an  account  of  Haydn's  work  in  Oratorio. 

What  works  did  Mozart  and  Beethoven  write  in  Oratorio 
form? 

Describe  Spohr's  work  in  Oratorio. 

Where  did  Mendelssohn's  work  become  most  popular? 
Give  an  account  of  his  compositions  in  Oratorio  form. 

The  class  should,  if  the  works  are  at  hand,  read  through 
the  text  of  Bach's,  Handel's,  Haydn's,  Spohr's  and  Men- 
delssohn's oratorios,  all  or  as  many  as  can  be  secured. 
Each  pupil  may  be  asked  to  write  an  account  of  one  work. 

Suggestions  for  a  Review  of  Lessons  XVH  to  XXIV. 

The  teacher  or  a  pupil  should  study  the  subject  of  the 
Renaissance  in  a  history  of  literature  and  also  of  art, 
and  then  present  to  the  class  an  abstract  of  the  study,  to 
show  the  spirit  of  the  movement  and  its  influence  on  art, 
especially  music. 

Use  the  paragraph  heads  in  each  chapter  with  the  impor- 
tant sentences  in  the  paragraphs  to  make  an  outline  of  each 
lesson.  This  is  a  great  help  in  fixing  the  lessons  in  the 
mind  in  preparing  for  examination. 

Sum  up  Monteverde  and  his  work,  his  relations  to  pre- 
decessors and  successors. 

Why  did  the  centre  shift  from  Florence  to  Venice? 

Give  a  sketch  of  Scarlatti,  his  life  and  contributions  to 
music. 

If  time  will  permit,  some  pupil  should  prepare  a  short 
account  of  such  composers  as  Pergolesi,  Porpora,  Piccini 
and  Paisiello. 

Give  a  summary  of  the  development  of  the  art  of  Singing. 

A  pupil  should  consult  Grove's  "Dictionary"  and  make 
a  paper  on  the  great  singers  of  the  olden  times,  their  per- 
sonality ;    also  interesting  anecdotes. 


LESSON    HELPS.  235 

Compare  the  Italian  Opera  with  the  form  developed  by 
Lully  and  Rameau. 

In  what  respects  did  the  English  Opera  differ  from  the 
Italian  and  French  form  ? 

State  the  characteristics  of  the  German  Opera. 

Handel's  work  in  Opera,  especially  in  England,  will  make 
an  interesting  study  for  a  short  paper  to  be  read  before  the 
class  by  some  member  of  it. 

Gluck's  career  is  full  of  interest  and  incident  and  his 
growth  is  clearly  a  matter  of  experience.  A  pupil  can,  to 
advantage,  study  his  life  in  some  biography  or  in  Grove's 
Dictionary  and  present  an  abstract  to  the  class. 

In  what  respects  did  Mozart's  and  Beethoven's  operas 
show  differences  from  the  conventional  Italian  form  ? 

A  study  of  Rossini's  life  and  works  is  full  of  interest,  on 
account  of  his  strong  personality  and  striking  characteristics. 

What  is  "Passion  Music"  ?  Why  is  it  specially  suited  to 
the  German  Protestant  Church? 

Compare  Handel's,  Haydn's,  Spohr's  and  Mendelssohn's 
work  in  Oratorio. 

Excellent  results  will  be  obtained  by  having  pupils  ])re- 
pare  charts  which  are  filled  up  from  lesson  to  lesson.  Take 
a  large  sheet  of  paper,  divide  it  into  columns,  each  column 
into  quarter  sections,  each  column  representing  a  century, 
each  section,  twenty-five  years.  Add  dates  of  birth  and 
death  of  the  great  musicians,  marking  each  name  I,  F,  G, 
to  show  nationality  (Italian,  French,  German,  etc.).  An- 
other chart  should  show  the  various  national  schools.  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  etc.,  by  centuries  and  quarter  centuries ;  an- 
other the  development  of  such  phases  as  opera,  oratorio, 
singing,  sonata,  etc. 

A  very  valuable  chart  is  one  showing  contemporaries,  in 
musical  and  general  history,  also  parallel  events,  for  ex- 
ample, the  musicians  who  lived  in  a  certain  century,  famous 
kings,  statesmen,  explorers,  poets,  scientists,  discoveries 
(such  as  America,  printing,  etc.),  famous  battles,  events  in 
Biblical  and  American  history,  and  other  political  events  of 
the  same  century.  Credit  should  be  given  in  class  standing 
for  these  charts. 


LESSON  XXV. 

The  Evolution'  of  the  Pianoforte. 

While  the  vioHn.  on  account  of  the  simpHcity  of  its  con- 
struction, arrived  early  at  a  stage  of  ])erfection,  the  com- 
plicated mechanism  of  the  pianoforte  required  many  gen- 
erations and  many  scores  of  more  or  less  successful  ex- 
periments to  attain  anything  like  a  corresponding  plane. 
Indeed,  such  experiments  are  still  constantly  in  progress ; 
so  that  the  pianoforte  of  the  future  may  conceivably  realize 
possibilities  as  far  ahead  of  the  present  piano  as  that  is 
ahead  of  its  predecessors;  The  first  attempts  at  piano 
manufacture,  however,  had  little  in  common  with  our  mod- 
ern pianos,  save  the  principle  of  the  combination  of  the  key- 
board with  strings ;  since  in  construction  and  resulting 
tone  few  points  of  similarity  exist. 

Clavier  a  Substitute  for  the  Organ. — We  are  probably  in- 
debted to  the  extensive  use  of  the  organ  for  the  earliest 
combinations  of  keys  and  strings.  As  the  demand  arose 
for  a  more  conveniently-keyed  instrument  than  the  large 
church  organs,  for  practice  or  private  houses,  small  port- 
able organs  were  invented ;  yet  even  these  did  not  satisfy 
the  want  entirely,  owing  to  the  difficulties  in  their  unnd 
supply,  which  required  an  assistant  as  blower.  Thus  the 
organ  keyboard  came  to  be  applied,  as  early  as  the  nth 
century,  to  already  existing  stringed  instruments  which 
were  adapted  to  the  purpose. 

Two  Classes. — There  were  two  classes  of  these,  each 
made  on  the  principle  of  the  zither:  namely,  by  stretching 
strings  over  a  flat  surface  or  box,  generally  across  bridges, 
this  box  serving  as  a  resonator,  to  reinforce  the  weak  tone 
of  the  strings.  One  such  instrument,  in  which  the  strings 
(236) 


THE   CLAVICHORD   AND   HARPSICHOftD   PRINCIPLES.       237 


were  struck  by  little  wooden  hammers,  was  called  the  Dul- 
cimer; another,  in  which  the  strings  were  sounded  by 
plucking  with  the  fingers  or  by  a  quill,  was  called  the 
Psaltery ;    and  from  these  two  were  developed  the  earliest 


Cymbalum  or  Dulcimer. 


instruments  of  the  piano  class,  called  by  the  general  name 
of  "Claviers,"  from  Clavis,  a  key.  The  dulcimer  type  re- 
sulted in  the  Clavichord;  the  psaltery  type  in  the  Harpsi- 
chord, and,  although  many  other  names  were  given  to  va- 


PSALTEBY. 

This  instrument  also 
came  in  square 
and  other  forms ; 
strings  varied 
from  6  to  88. 


rieties  of  these  instruments,  all  may  be  placed  in  one  of  the 
two  classes  of  which  they  are  the  chief  representatives. 

Principle  of  the  Clavichord. — The  first  of  the  Clavichord 
instruments  had  the  name  of  Monochord,  or  one-stringed 
instrument — a  name  of  great  antiquity,  first  given  by  the 
Grecian  Pythagoras  to  an  instrument  of  one  string  used 
by  him  in  determining  the  relations  of  tones.  Similar  ex- 
periments were  made  in  the  Middle  Ages,  in  which  the 
various  tones  resulting  from  the  vibrations  of  parts  of  a 


23B  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

string  were  studied  by  means  of  movable  bridges ;  facilit> 
was  gained  by  increasing  the  number  of  st^^ings  to  four  or 
five,  tuned  in  unison.  Next,  keys  were  applied  to  these  in 
place  of  the  bridges,  which  keys  struck  the  strings  at 
various  definite  points  by  means  of  upright  pins  or  tangents, 
as  they  were  called,  producing  varying  pitches,  according 
to  the  length  of  the  part  of  the  string  allowed  to  sound, 
the  remaining  segment  being  silenced  by  a  piece  of  cloth. 
Thus  several  tangents  struck  the  same  string  at  different 
points,  producing  different  degrees  of  pitch.  At  first,  when 
only  the  scales  corresponding  to  the  white  keys  were  em- 
ployed, four  or  five  strings  sufficed  to  sound  the  necessary 
tones,  not  over  twenty-two  in  number.  Later,  however, 
when  chromatic  notes  were  adopted,  the  number  of  strings 
and  keys  was  increased,  so  that,  by  the  beginning  of  the 
i6th  century,  the  keyboard  had  a  range  of  three  or  four 
full  octaves.  From  this  time  on,  this  instrument,  now  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Clavichord,  won  a  popularity  which  ex- 
tended to  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  when  the 
Pianoforte  gradually  displaced  it.  A  familiar  instrument 
in  England  and  Germany,  it  was  especially  cultivated  by 
musicians  of  note  in  the  latter  country,  even  the  renowned 
Bach  preferring  it  to  all  other  forms  of  its  class. 

The  Clavichord. — In  shape,  the  Clavichord  was  an  ob- 
long box,  the  strings  of  brass  extending  lengthwise.  The 
fact  that  one  string  served  for  several  keys  made  it  impos- 
sible to  sound  certain  intervals  together;  yet  the  device  of 
giving  a  separate  string  to  each  key  seems  not  to  have 
come  in  till  about  the  year  1725,  and  even  then  not  to  have 
been  generally  adopted.  Without  legs,  the  Clavichord  was 
supported  on  a  table  when  in  use.  Its  tone  was  exceed- 
ingly weak  and  tremulous,  audible  only  within  the  dis- 
tance of  a  few  feet;  yet  the  fact  that  this  tone  could  be 
given  different  degrees  of  intensity,  and  could  be  varied 
to  some  extent  even  while  sounding,  by  a  peculiar  pressure 
on  the  keys  (bebung),  imb'iied  its  tone  with  a  sympathetic 
quality  which  helps  to  account  for  the  tenacity  with  which 
musicians  clung  to  it,  notwithstanding  all  its  imperfections. 


PRINCIPLE   OF   THE    HARPSICHORD. 


239 


Principle  of  the  Harpsichord. — Instruments  of  the  Harp- 
sichord class  were  especially  numerous  in  Italy,  France  and 
England.     They  differed  from  the  Clavichord  chiefly  in  the 


The  Clavichord. 

method  of  setting  the  string  in  vibration.  This  was  done 
by  plucking  the  string  with  a  quill  set  in  a  jack  at  the 
end  of  the  key,  the  action  so  arranged  that,  after  the  key 
was  released,  the  jack  fell  back  to  its  place,  while  a  damper 
came  against  the  string,  preventing  its  further  vibration. 
Since  these  strings  could  not  be  used  as  bridges,  like  the 
tangents  of  the  Clavichord,  it  was  necessary  from  the  first 
that  each  key  should  have  a  separate  string.  Moreover, 
as  these  strings  were  thus  made  of  varying  lengths  and 
thicknesses,  the  Harpsichords  were  more  often  made  in  a 
triangular  shape,  or  one  like  our  modern  grand  pianos, 
than  in  the  rectangular  Clavichord  shape.  The  chief  de- 
fect, and  the  one  which  makers  tried  in  vain  to  remedy, 
lay  in  the  fact  that  the  plucking  of  the  strings,  while  pro- 
ducing greater  brilliancy,  admitted  of  no  variation  in  its 
degrees  of  loudness  or  softness. 

Virginal  and  Spinet. — Several  small  instruments  of  this 
kind  preceded  its  full  development,  differing  mainly  in 
shape  and  choice  of  materials.  In  England  these  received 
the  name  of  Virginal ;  in  France,  that  of  Spinet.  Both  of 
these  were  introduced  into  polite  society,  chiefly  as  small 
house  instruments  of  limited  compass,  varied  sizes,  and  fre- 
quently with  elaborate  decoration.    The  difference  between 


240  THE   HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

them  was  principally  one  of  shape,  the  Virginal  taking 
the  oblong  form  of  the  Clavichord,  while  the  Spinet  was 
more  often  triangular.  They  appeared  both  with  and  with- 
out supports ;  and  in  some  cases  the  strings  were  placed  in 
a  vertical  position,  as  in  our  upright  pianofortes. 


The  Vibginal  oe  Spinet. 

The  Harpsichord. — The  Harpsichord  proper  was  simply  a 
larger  form  of  the  Spinet  and  Virginal,  and  was  made  in 
the  form  of  the  grand  pianoforte.  On  account  of  its  added 
brilliancy  of  tone,  it  was  admirably  adapted  for  use  in  the 
orchestra,  in  which  it  became  the  conductor's  instrument 
in  connection  with  the  opera.  In  Italy,  the  terms  Clavicem- 
balo and  Gravicembalo  were  given  to  it,  while  in  Germany 
it  was  called  Fliigel,  or  wing,  from  its  wing-shaped  cover. 
As  it  became  popular  as  a  concert  instrument,  many  inven- 
tions were  added  to  increase  the  brilliancy  and  variety  of 
its  tone:  an  extra  keyboard  was  placed  above  the  first,  as 
in  the  organ,  and  three  or  four  strings  were  given  each  note, 
which  could  be  used  to  reinforce  the  single-string  tone,  by 
means  of  the  second  keyboard.  Moreover,  various  kinds  of 
quills  were  invented,  giving  different  tone  qualities ;  and 
such  effects  were  controlled  by  stops  or  pedals.  These  ex- 
periments were  especially  numerous  in  the  1 8th  century, 
in  which  the  rapid  growth  of  musical  resources  demanded 
constantly  more  tonal  possibilities.     Large  manufacturers, 


THE  HARPSICHORD. 


241 


such  as  the  Ruckers  family  of  Antwerp,  and  Tabel  in  Eng- 
land, vied  with  each  other  in  producing  novel  devices,  such 
as  the  imitation  of  other  instruments,  the  tuning  of  an 
extra  string  for  each  note  an  octave  above  its  normal  pitch, 
and  the  addition  of  a  keyboard  connected  with  an  organ. 
Attempts  to  produce  a  sustained  tone  resulted  in  the  Piano- 
Violin,  in  which  a  revolving  rosined  wheel  was  pressed  by 


Two-Manual  Harpsichord. 


the  key  against  the  string,  to  continue  the  tone;    but  all 
such  were  abandoned  finally  as  unsuccessful. 

Invention  of  the  Pianoforte. — To  this  exceptional  activity 
in  keyed  instruments,  and  the  final  failure  to  produce  a  sing- 
ing tone  capable  of  variation  in  the  Harpsichord,  we  owe 
the  invention  of  the  Pianoforte.  In  171 1,  Bartolomeo  Cris- 
tofori,  a  noted  harpsichord  maker  of  Tuscany,  exhibited 


242  TlIK    HISTORY    OV    MUSIC. 

several  "forte-pianos"  in  which  the  action  was  so  con- 
structed that  the  keys,  when  depressed,  threw  Httle  leather- 
headed  hammers,  affixed  to  a  bar  above  them,  against  the 
strings,  thus  making  it  possible  to  modulate  the  strength  of 
tone  by  the  degree  of  force  with  which  the  keys  were 
struck.  When  the  key  was  released,  a  damper  came  against 
the  string  from  beneath,  stopping  further  vibration. 

Early  Makers. — Although  this  invention  did  not  at  first 
attract  widespread  attention,  it  undoubtedly  formed  the 
basis  of  the  others  which  quickly  followed  it,  and  really 
asserted  the  principle  afterwards  adopted  for  the  piano  ac- 
tion. In  1 7 16,  Marius,  a  French  manufacturer,  submitted 
four  models  for  piano  actions,  which,  however,  were  never 
developed.  Also,  Schroeter,  a  German,  constructed  two 
models  of  piano  actions,  in  1717,  in  one  of  which  the  ham- 
mers struck  on  top  of  the  strings ;  but  neither  of  these  was 
put  to  practical  use.  Finally,  Gottfried  Silbermann,  of 
Saxony,  distinguished  as  an  organ  and  harpsichord  maker, 
made  two  pianofortes,  the  action  of  which  was  evidently 
based  on  that  of  Cristofori,  and  which  he  exhibited  to  J.  S. 
Bach.  While  praising  them  in  many  respects.  Bach  criti- 
cised them  as  too  weak  in  the  upper  notes,  and  too  hard  to 
play.  Silbermann  was  exceedingly  painstaking  as  a  work- 
man, having  the  reputation  of  breaking  to  pieces  with  an 
axe  even  a  finished  product  which  showed  any  imperfection. 
He  therefore  set  to  work  to  remedy  these  defects,  and,  in 
1737,  produced  several  pianofortes  which  won  Bach's  un- 
qualified approval. 

Superiority  of  the  Piano. — The  Pianoforte  was  now  placed 
upon  a  firm  basis ;  and  although  many  years  elapsed  be- 
fore its  resources  were  developed  sufficiently  to  cause  its 
universal  adoption  by  musicians,  the  final  victory  over  its 
predecessors  was  complete.  And  this  victory  was  natural, 
since  the  Pianoforte  was  found  capable  of  combining  the 
best  qualities  of  the  Clavichord  and  the  Harpsichord,  with 
the  addition  of  a  tone  capacity  infinitely  superior  to  either. 

Improvements. — The  story  of  succeeding  piano  manu- 
facture   and    the    manifold    inventions    and    improvements 


IMPROVEMENTS    IN    THE    PIANOFORTE.  243 

relative  to  it  is  one  of  infinite  details.  Among  these  we 
notice  that  while  Silbermann  pianos  were  in  "grand"  form, 
Frederici  of  Gera  (died  1779)  constructed  them  in  oblong 
or  "square"  shape;  that  the  pianos  of  Spaeth  (died  1796) 
and  of  J.  Andreas  Stein  (died  1792),  wdiose  pianos  were 
adopted  for  use  by  Mozart,  showed  considerable  advance- 
ment. The  Stein  family  became  allied  with  Andreas  Strei- 
cher,  an  inventive  genius,  and  founded  a  manufactory  in 
Vienna  which  has  maintained  a  high  standard  to  the  pres- 
ent time.  The  action  invented  by  them,  known  as  the  \'ien- 
nese  action,  differs  from  that  of  Cristofori  in  having  the 
hammers  annexed  to  the  keys  themselves,  instead  of  on  a 
bar  above  them ;  thus  giving  a  light  touch  and  tone.  In 
England,  the  principle  of  the  Cristofori  action  was  devel- 
oped by  the  renowned  house  of  Broadwood,  their  action 
becoming  known  as  the  English  action ;  w^iile  in  France, 
Sebastian  Erhard,  or  Erard,  a  Strasburg  inventor,  founded 
the  Erard  action,  which  has  a  double  hammer  movement, 
allowing  the  hammers  to  fall  either  entirely,  or  only  par- 
tially into  place  after  the  key  is  struck,  at  the  will  of  the 
performer.  The  "cottage"  action,  introduced  by  William 
Southwell,  about  1800,  was  the  beginning  of  the  "upright" 
form,  which  has  now  entirely  superseded  that  of  the  square 
piano.  Thus,  by  continued  experiments,  the  piano  has 
gained  in  compass,  brilliancy,  sustaining  power  and  strength 
of  construction,  to  meet  the  constantly-increasing  demands 
placed  upon  it,  until  the  modern  piano  seems  to  possess  un- 
limited resources,  and  until  the  unending  supply  of  instru- 
ments of  all  grades  from  hundreds  of  factories  is  sufficient 
to  place  one  of  these  "household  orchestras"  within  the 
reach  of  rich  and  poor  alike. 

Equal  Temperament. — An  early  difficulty  in  the  case  of 
keyed  instruments  was  the  matter  of  tuning,  caused  by  the 
fact  that  it  was  found  scientifically  impossible  to  tune  all 
the  intervals  of  the  scale  at  the  same  time  to  the  true  pitch ; 
that  is,  the  pitch  demanded  by  the  natural  overtones  of  the 
fundamental  note  of  the  scale.  At  the  outset,  for  instance, 
It  was  found  that  if  the  fifths  were  tuned  true,  the  octaves 


244  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

would  be  a  trifle  sharp;  and,  conversely,  if  the  octaves 
were  true,  the  fifths  would  be  a  trifle  flat.  In  the  case  of 
stringed  instruments,  where  the  tone  was  made  by  the  per- 
former, it  could  be  so  modified  as  not  to  conflict  seriously ; 
but  with  keyed  instruments  this  was  impossible.  Thus^ 
many  systems  of  tuning  or  "temperaments"  were  tried, 
such  as  having  two  keys  for  two  notes  nearly  in  unison, 
like  F-sharp  and  G-flat,  most  of  these  resulting  in  the  pos- 
sibility of  playing  in  a  few  nearly  related  keys,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  others.  Finally,  through  the  influence  of 
J.  S.  Bach  (1685-1750)  and  the  Frenchman  Rameau  (1683- 
1764),  the  simple  expedient  was  definitely  adopted  of  tuning 
the  octaves  true,  and  dividing  each  octave  into  twelve  equal 
parts,  thus  uniting  such  notes  as  F-sharp  and  G-flat  in  one 
tone  slightly  out  of  tune  with  either,  but  not  enough  ser- 
iously to  offend  the  ear.  This,  called  "equal  temperament/' 
was  a  great  gain  to  music,  since  it  not  only  removed  a 
radical  defect  in  keyed  instruments,  but  also  opened  the 
door  to  that  free  interchange  of  keys  which  has  done  so 
much  toward  enriching  the  coloring  and  scope  of  succeed- 
ing compositions. 

References. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  articles  on 
the  Clavichord,  Virginal,  Spinet,  Harpsichord,  Pianoforte. 

Naumann. — History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 

Weitzmann. — History  of  the  Pianoforte. 

Brinsmead. — History  of  the  Pianoforte. 

Rimbault. — The  Pianoforte:  Its  Origin,  Progress  and 
Construction. 

Spillane. — History  of  the  American   Pianoforte. 

Questions. 

What  principle  did  the  first  attempts  at  piano-making 
recognize  ? 

To  what  circumstance  are  we  indebted  for  the  attempt 
to  make  an  instrument  of  the  Clavier  type? 


LESSON    HELPS.  245 

What  are  the  two  classes  of  stringed  instruments  with 
keyboard  as  known  in  the  nth  century? 

State  the  steps  in  the  development  of  the  Clavichord 
principle. 

Describe  the  Clavichord. 

Describe  the  Harpsichord  principle. 

Describe  the  Virginal  and  Spinet. 

Describe  the  Harpsichord. 

Who  was  the  inventor  of  the  Pianoforte?  When  did  he 
exhibit  the  first  instrument? 

Who  were  the  early  makers? 

What  points  of  superiority  did  the  Piano  have  over  the 
Clavichord  and  the  Harpsichord? 

What  successive  improvements  were  made  by  various 
makers  ? 

What  is  meant  by  Equal  Temperament? 


LESSON  XXVI. 

The  Early  Italian  Clavier  Composers. 

Early  Instrumental  Music.  —  The  history  of  pianoforte 
composition  and  playing  really  begins  with  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding keyed  instruments  with  strings,  to  all  of  which  the 
convenient  name  of  "Claviers"  will  be  given.  As  these 
early  instruments  were  at  first  merely  substitutes  for  the 
organ,  which  in  turn  was  used  simply  to  reduplicate  voice 
parts,  the  music  first  played  on  them  was  in  no  wise  dif- 
ferent from  the  vocal  and  organ  music  of  the  day.  When, 
moreover,  music  written  for  the  organ  had  some  features 
distinct  from  purely  vocal  music,  it  was  frequently  inscribed 
to  be  played  on  the  organ  or  clavier,  without  discrimination. 

Influence  of  the  Renaissance. — As  most  of  the  patterns  of 
musical  form  have  proceeded  from  Italy,  so  it  was  there, 
in  Venice,  that  instrumental  music  seems  to  have  emerged 
from  its  union  with  vocal  music,  and  to  have  assumed  the 
elements  of  a  style  of  its  own.  This  was  directly  the  result 
of  the  general  awakening  of  thought  after  the  Dark  Ages, 
known  as  the  Renaissance,  which,  leading  to  independent 
investigation  in  the  domains  of  science  and  art,  brought  in 
the  one  unheard-of  inventions  and  the  discovery  of  new 
worlds,  and  in  the  other  a  freedom  of  treatment  fitted  to 
express  the  new  ideas  surging  throughout  the  civilized 
world.  Thus,  in  the  first  part  of  the  i6th  century,  while 
Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo  were  voicing  these  thoughts 
in  their  immortal  creations,  in  Venice,  a  school  of  musi- 
cians was  turning  its  attention  toward  instrumental  music, 
and  striving  to  produce  in  music  a  richness  of  color,  just 
as  the  great  Venetian  painters,  like  Titian  and  Giorgione. 
(246) 


THE    EARLY    ITALIAN    CLAVIER    COMPOSERS.  247 

were  producing  similar  effects  upon  canvas.  Teachers  and 
students  were  congregating  there,  enthusiastic  over  the  new 
ideas  in  music ;  and  the  focal  point  of  all  this  activity  was 
the  Church  of  St.  Mark's,  whose  magnificent  double  organ 
furnished  an  incentive  to  genius. 

The  First  Sonata. — Among  these  musicians  were  a  num- 
ber of  apostles  of  the  Netherlands  school,  of  whom  Adrian 
Willaert  (1480-1562)  was  especially  honored  and  beloved. 
He  and  his  successors,  as  organists  at  St.  Mark's,  wrote 
compositions  for  organ  or  clavier,  which  they  taught  to 
young  ladies  in  the  convents.  Such  compositions  were 
made  the  more  possible  by  the  fact  that  into  the  old 
Church  Modes,  formed  by  using  only  the  tones  represented 
by  the  white  keys  of  our  piano,  "chromatic"  or  colored  tones 
came  to  be  inserted;  so  that,  in  the  course  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury, the  modern  scales,  with  their  characteristic  keynotes, 
or  tonalities,  came  to  vie  with  the  old  modes,  and  ultimately 
nearly  to  displace  them,  thus  giving  a  chance  for  a  variety 
and  grouping  of  harmonies  necessary  in  the  elaboration  of 
instrumental  music.  The  name  Sonata,  or  "sound"  piece, 
was  at  first  given  indiscriminately  to  such  instrumental 
works,  in  distinction  from  the  Cantata,  or  vocal  work. 

Willaert  and  His  Pupils. — Willaert  was  especially  success- 
ful as  a  teacher,  and  thus  left  a  number  of  accomplished 
pupils  to  carry  on  his  labors.  Of  these,  Girolamo  Parabosco 
(i593"i^^)  was  noted  for  his  free  fantasias,  and  his  im- 
provisations of  sonatas  on  the  harpsichord ;  while  Claudio 
Merulo  of  Correggio  (1533-1604)  wrote  a  number  of  toc- 
catas, in  which  the  old  church  chorale  style  was  relieved  by 
contrasting  passages  consisting  of  brilliant  runs.  The  Toc- 
cata, or  touch  piece,  had.  as  its  characteristics,  such  quick 
running  passages,  probably  first  suggested  by  the  light  tone 
and  action  of  the  Clavier.  While  these  runs  had  at  first 
very  little  relevancy  to  one  another,  they  were  much  de- 
lighted in  by  these  early  pioneers,  who  sported  with  them 
as  a  child  plays  with  a  new  toy. 

The  Gabrieli's. — Two  other  organists  of  St.  Mark's,  An- 
dreas  Gabrieli    (1510-1586),    and    his    nephew   and   pupil, 


248  THE    HISTORY   O9  MUSIC. 

Giovanni  Gabrieli  (1557-1613),  added  to  the  resources  of 
instrumental  music.  The  first  of  these,  a  pupil  of  Willaert, 
himself  became  a  famous  teacher;  and  both  contributed 
many  canzone  and  sonatas  to  organ  and  clavier  literature. 
In  all  these  the  subjects  were  distinct,  and,  in  the  canzone 
especially,  the  many  quick  passages  and  changing  rhythms 
were  used  in  a  manner  that  contributed  to  unity. 

The  Harpsichord  in  Opera. — A  new  factor  now  appeared 
in  Florence,  destined  greatly  to  further  the  cause  of  clavier 
music:  namely,  the  Opera.  Taking  the  position  of  the 
conductor's  instrument,  the  harpsichord  became  the  most 
useful  member  of  the  orchestra,  and  was  employed  con- 
stantly to  fill  in  vague  harmonies,  and  to  strike  chords  as 
a  support  to  the  musical  declamation  of  the  singers.  Such 
chords  were  not  generally  written  out,  but  were  suggested 
by  their  bass  note,  over  which  figures  were  written  to  show 
their  positions.  To  this  shorthand  system  the  name  of 
Thorough-bass  was  given.  In  this  way  the  value  of  chord 
combinations  came  to  be  recognized,  and  the  relationships 
of  such  chords  studied  entirely  apart  from  the  voice  writ- 
ing ;  so  the  idea  of  a  single  melody,  supported  by  occasional 
chords,  was  transplanted  from  the  Opera,  and  the  modern 
harmonic  style  of  music  came  into  being. 

Dance  Tunes. — But,  in  this  new  style,  the  old  basis  for 
Unity  in  the  composition,  furnished  by  the  imitation  of 
one  part  by  another,  had  to  be  abandoned,  since  only  one 
melodic  part  existed  at  a  time;  hence  a  new  basis  had  to 
be  found  in  the  manner  in  which  harmonies  succeeded  each 
other.  In  determining  such  chord  relationships,  composers 
were  obliged  to  look  elsewhere  than  to  the  old  Church 
music ;  and  so  turned  their  attention  to  the  forms  of  Dance 
Tunes  which  had  already  been  in  use  for  a  long  time  among 
the  people  in  their  Folk-songs,  and  in  the  performances  of 
the  wandering  minstrels.  Most  of  these  dance  tunes  were 
formed  in  a  very  simple  two-part  design  of  harmony,  con- 
sisting in  a  transition  from  the  initial  key  to  a  contrasting 
key,  for  the  first  part,  and  a  return  from  the  contrasting 
key  to  the  first  key,  in  the  second  part. 


FRESCOBALDI. 


249 


Origin  of  the  Suite. — A  book  of  such  dances,  based,  how- 
ever, on  the  clumsy  church  modes,  was  pubhshed  in  1551. 
Later,  however,  such  dances  came  to  be  written  in  the  new 
harmonic  style ;  and  by  putting  together  a  set  of  dances  all 
in  the  same  key  but  differing  in  rhythm  and  mode  of  ex- 
pression, a  larger  form  of  composition  was  devised,  com- 
bining Variety  with  Unity.  To  this  form  the  name  of 
Suite  was  given. 

Frescobaldi. — Another  element  tending  to  give  Unity  to 
the  composition  was  developed  when  composers  learned  to 


GiBOLAMO   FkESCOBALDI. 


work  out  a  single  subject,  or  melodic  phrase  representing  a 
definite  musical  idea,  by  introducing  it  a  number  of  times 
in  the  course  of  the  composition,  sometimes  with  slight 
variation,  but  always  recognizable  and  used  in  such  a  way 
as  to  bind  the  various  parts  the  more  closely  together  by 
their  similarity  of  conception.  Several  organists  at  Rome 
wrote  music  which  possessed  such  unity  of  idea.  One  of 
these  was  Girolamo  Frescobaldi  (1583-1644),  a  man  who 
was  a  close  student  of  the  best  Italian  music  of  his  time, 
and  who  had,  moreover,  been  brought  into  contact  with 


250  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Netherlands  ideas  through  travel  in  Belgium.  On  his  first 
appearance  as  organist  of  St.  Peter's  in  Rome,  in  161 5,  so 
great  fame  had  preceded  him  that  over  30,000  people  are 
said  to  have  attended  the  performance.  His  skill  on  the 
clavier  was  no  less  than  that  on  the  organ ;  and  for  both 
of  these  instruments  he  wrote  Ricercari,  Canzone  and  Ca- 
pricci.  which  showed  considerable  unity  of  subject,  to- 
gether with  fluency  in  the  treatment  of  chromatic  progres- 
sions, and  a  wealth  of  invention,  which  displayed  itself  in 
novel  themes  and  unusual  harmonies ;  his  compositions  are 
well  worth  study. 

Pasquini. — In  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century,  Ber- 
nardo Pasquini  (1637-1710),  a  pupil  of  the  opera  composer 
Cesti,  carried  on  the  work  at  Rome.  In  his  toccati  he 
shows  great  freedom  in  departing  from  the  strict  vocal 
style,  and  his  clavier  works  have  features,  like  the  sustained 
trill,  which  distinguish  them  decidedly  from  organ  works. 

Method  of  Playing  the  Clavier. — The  method  of  playing 
the  clavier  used  by  these  old  masters  was  peculiar.  In  a 
work  on  the  subject  published  by  Di  Ruta,  about  the  year 
1600,  the  rules  given  include  holding  the  fingers  out  flat 
on  the  keys,  and  scarcely  using  the  thumb  at  all,  allowing  it 
to  hang  below  the  level  of  the  keyboard.  The  scales  were 
played  each  with  two  fingers,  according  to  fixed  rules ;  so 
that  smoothness  combined  with  rapidity  seems  to  have  been 
made  impossible. 

The  Sonata  and  Overture. — Starting  with  the  harmonic 
form  of  the  old  dance  tunes,  composers  now  began  to  elab- 
orate this  to  a  form  capable  of  expressing  more  serious 
ideas,  by  giving  more  definiteness  to  the  musical  subject 
treated,  and  by  introducing  material  derived  from  the  old 
vocal  forrfts.  Corelli,  the  violinist  (1653-1713),  and  the 
violinists  of  his  school,  restricted  the  name  Sonata  to  com- 
binations of  such  movements,  in  distinction  from  the  lighter 
forms  of  the  Suite ;  and  the  celebrated  opera  composer. 
Alessandro  Scarlatti  (1659-1725),  applied  similar  methods 
to  the  comptrsition  of  his  operatic  overtures,  writing  them 
in  three  parts :  first,  a  moderately  fast  movement,  which  was 


SCARLATTI'S    SONATAS.  25 1 

followed  by  a  slow  movement,  the  whole  closing  with  a 
movement  in  quick  tempo. 

Domenico  Scarlatti. — Clavier  music  lagged  somewhat  be- 
hind violin  music,  owing  to  the  greater  perfection  of  the 
violin  as  an  instrument,  and  also  to  the  popularity  of  the 
lute,  which  was  much  affected  in  fashionable  circles.  Fi- 
nally, however,  a  man  appeared  who  possessed  the  genius 
to  develop  the  peculiar  resources  of  the  harpsichord  to  a 
remarkable  extent.  This  was  Domenico  Scarlatti,  the  son 
and  pupil  of  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  The  latter  was  him- 
self a  skilful  clavier  player  and  composer;  but  his  son  at- 
tained a  proficiency  so  far  eclipsing  that  of  any  of  his 
predecessors  as  to  place  him  entirely  without  the  pale  of 
comparison  with  any  of  them.  Domenico  Scarlatti,  who 
was  born  at  Naples  in  1683,  two  years  before  Handel  and 
Bach,  first  attracted  attention  when  about  twenty-one  years 
old,  as  an  opera  composer ;  but  achieved  his  greatest  suc- 
cesses as  a  virtuoso  on  the  harpsichord,  winning  a  world- 
wide reputation  for  his  wonderful  playing,  which  was  a 
revelation  of  what  could  be  done  with  this  hitherto  un- 
developed instrument.  In  one  of  Handel's  Italian  journeys 
a  contest  of  skill  was  instituted  between  these  two  musical 
giants ;  and  the  result  was  a  drawn  battle  so  far  as  the 
harpsichord  was  concerned,  although  Handel  triumphed  at 
the  organ.  Scarlatti  traveled  about  somewhat,  spending 
most  of  his  later  life  in  the  position  of  court  music  master 
at  Madrid.  He  finally  returned  to  his  birthplace,  where 
he  died  in  1757. 

Scarlatti's  Use  of  Form. — In  the  matter  of  form,  Scar- 
latti developed  still  further  the  work  of  his  predecessors, 
applying  to  the  harpsichord  the  principles  asserted  by  Corelli 
and  his  school.  His  Sonatas  were  written  in  one  movement 
only,  and  have  very  definite  subjects,  which  are  carried 
out  along  recognized  lines.  His  Capriccii — short  pieces 
written  in  a  rhythmic  and  delicately  staccato  style — are 
some  of  his  best  works,  and  undoubtedly  paved  the  way 
for  the  Scherzi,  written  by  Beethoven  and  Mendelssohn. 
His  compositions  are  short,  but  concise  and  definite. 


252 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


Scarlatti's  Style  of  Playing.— But  his  chief  addition  to 
musical  material  lies  in  the  new  style  of  playing  which  he 
invented.  Novel  effects,  like  crossing  the  hands,  iong  leaps, 
broken  chords  in  contrary  motion,  rapidly  repeated  notes, 
and  runs  in  thirds  and  sixths — effects  which  were  in  many 
cases  far  ahead  of  his  time,  since  they  were  not  used  by 
succeeding  composers  until  a  much  later  period — were  em- 
ployed by  him  with  the  utmost  fluency,  so  that  he  has  been 
aptly  called  the  father  of  modern  pianoforte  technic. 


4fc-«,.-    -    -: a     \        '       .     ::=«■  — =z    >  .  ■  fl^ 


Examples  of  Scarlatti's  Style. 

Durante. — The  Neapolitan  school  boasted  several  other 
worthy  clavier  composers,  who  contributed  in  various  ways 
to  the  composition  of  the  Sonata.  One  of  these  was  Fran- 
cesco Durante  (1684-1755),  who  wrote  sonatas  in  two  move- 
ments of  different  character  but  in  the  same  key.  The  first, 
called  a  Studio,  was  written  as  a  free  fugue  with  running 
passages;  the  second,  or  Divertimento,  was  more  animated 
and  less  scholastic.  Domenico  Albertl  (1707- 1740)  com- 
posed sonatas  similar  in  general  form,  but  of  less  artistic 
worth,  consisting  as  they  did  simply  of  a  single-voiced  mel- 
ody, supported  by  an  harmonic  accompaniment  having  no 


LESSON    HELPS.  253 

independence  of  style.  Much  of  this  was  in  the  form  of 
broken  chords,  a  mannerism  which  was  afterwards  used  to 
excess,  and  became  dubbed  the  "Alberti  bass."     This  ac- 


companiment form  doubtless  suited  the  clavichord  and  harp- 
sichord, but  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  the  more  sonorous 
modern  piano.  It  is  still  used  by  composers  for  very  simple 
accompaniments. 

Pier  Domenico  Paradies  (1710-1792)  deserves  special 
mention  as  the  writer  of  elegant  and  well-balanced  clavier 
music.  He  first  won  success  as  a  composer  of  operas, 
which  were  given  in  Italy,  and  afterwards  in  London,  where 
he  finally  settled  as  clavier  teacher.  His  sonatas  have  two 
movements,  like  Durante's,  and  contain  brilliant  allegros, 
besides  attractive  melodies.  His  two-part  rapid  contra- 
puntal work  is  excellent,  both  for  musical  merit  and  for 
technical  study. 

Summary. — We  have  seen,  then,  that  in  the  i6th  century, 
in  Italy,  instrumental  music  began  to  break  from  its  union 
with  vocal  music;  that  the  Opera  brought  the  harpsichord 
especially  into  notice  in  the  17th  century,  on  account  of  its 
availability  for  accompaniments,  and  that  finally,  in  the 
i8th  century,  the  Neapolitan  composers  developed  for  it 
a  style  which  took  advantage  of  its  peculiar  resources,  and 
applied  them  to  the  enrichment  of  the  harmonic  forms 
which  were  coming  into  vogue. 

References. 

Weitzmann. — History  of  Pianoforte  Playing. 
Naumann. — History  of  Music,  Vol.  I. 
J.  S.  Shedlock. — The  Pianoforte  Sonata. 
Henderson. — How  Music  Developed. 
Henderson. — Preludes  and  Studies. 


254  the  history  of  mlsic. 

Musical  Illustrations. 

Weitzmann's  History,  pages  291-313. 

Rimbault,  "The  Pianoforte,"  pages  257,  306,  310. 

Litolff  edition,  No.  397,  second  volume  of  "Music  by  Old 
Masters." 

Augener  edition,  No.  8298,  Old  Italian  Compositions, 

The  Breitkopf  Edition,  Nos.  iii,  112,  411,  have  reference 
to  music  for  the  clavier,  written  during  the  17th  and  i8th 
centuries. 

Biblioteca  d'Oro,  Ricordi,  contains  examples  of  the  com- 
positions of  the  leading  composers  of  the  17th  to  19th 
centuries. 

Questions. 

What  influence  did  the  Renaissance  have  on  early  in- 
strumental music? 

Give  an  account  of  the  "sonatas"  written  by  Willaert. 

What  other  kinds  of  composition  were  written  during 
this  period? 

What  were  the  contributions  of  the  Gabrieli's? 

How  did  the  Opera  influence  harpsichord  music? 

What  principles  were  used  in  making  dance  tunes? 

What  was  the  origin  of  the  Suite  ? 

How  did  these  early  composers  attempt  to  give  Unity 
to  a  composition? 

Tell  about  the  work  of  Frescobaldi  and  Pasquini. 

What  peculiarities  of  fingering  were  used  by  the  early 
players  ? 

What  distinction  did  Corelli  and  his  successors  make  be- 
tween the  Sonata  and  the  Suite  ? 

Describe  the  career  of  Domenico  Scarlatti. 

What  forms  did  he  use  in  his  compositions? 

What  characteristics  did  he  show  in  his  playing? 

Tell  about  the  work  of  Durante,  Alberti  and  Paradies, 

Give  the  successive  stages  of  development  from  the  i6th 
to  the  18th  century. 


LESSON  XXVII. 

The  Early  English  and  French  Clavier  Schools. 

English  Schools  to  Henry  VIII. — Popular  music,  both 
vocal  and  instrumental,  was  an  early  English  institution. 
The  many  Folk-songs  which  have  come  down  from  a  very 
early  period  bear  witness  to  the  English  love  of  convivial- 
ity. Dance  tunes,  sometimes  based  on  these  Folk-songs, 
were  played  on  the  instruments  of  the  minstrels,  which,  as 
early  as  1484,  included  the  clavichord ;  and  the  fact  that 
such  instruments  were  cultivated  by  people  of  higher  rank 
is  shown  by  the  record  that  James  IV  of  Scotland  and  his 
queen  purchased  clavichords  to  play  upon,  in  1503,  while 
the  queen  of  Henry  VII  of  England  bought  a  clavichord 
for  her  private  use  in  1502.  The  virginal  is  spoken  of  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VII;  Henry  VIII  (reigned  1509-1547), 
who  was  an  accomplished  musician,  played  upon  both  these 
instruments,  and  also  wrote  music  for  them. 

To  ftueen  Elizabeth's  Time. — Edward  VI  (r.  1547-1553) 
had  three  duly  appointed  virginal  players  among  his  court 
musicians;  and  after  Elizabeth  (r.  1558-1603)  ascended  the 
throne,  the  virginal  increased  in  popularity ;  indeed,  its 
name  was  formerly  thought  to  have  been  derived  from  her 
as  the  virgin  queen ;  although  the  fact  that  the  instru- 
ment was  spoken  of  as  the  virginal  before  her  reign  makes 
its  derivation  from  its  popularity  among  young  ladies  the 
more  probable.  Queen  Elizabeth,  as  well  as  her  sister 
Mary,  received  instruction  in  virginal  playing  during  her 
early  youth,  and  became  an  accomplished  performer ;  and 
instances  are  shown  of  the  former's  great  pride  in  this  ac- 
complishment.   In  the  course  of  her  illustrious  reign,  when 

(255) 


256  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

all  the  arts  flourished  to  a  remarkable  degree,  and  when 
great  wits  and  litterateurs  vied  with  each  other  in  the 
genius  of  their  productions,  the  art  of  music  received  its 
share  of  attention  also.  The  fact  that  musical  degrees 
were  early  given  at  the  great  universities,  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  tended  to  raise  the  standard  of  musical  knowl- 
edge, and  to  produce  a  number  of  composers  who  were 
especially  gifted  in  the  more  serious  Church  forms  of  writ- 
ing. Many  such,  connected  with  the  Royal  Chapel  and  the 
court,  wrote  excellent  anthems  and  secular  part-songs ;  and 
now,  attracted  by  the  popularity  of  the  instrument,  they 
began  to  give  a  more  worthy  setting  to  the  folk  and  dance 
tunes  played  on  the  clavier. 

Dance  Tanes. — A  clavier  composition  is  extant,  dated 
I555»  by  William  Blitheman,  an  English  church  composer, 
consisting  of  a  chorale-like  melody  in  whole  notes,  accom- 
panied first  by  a  flowing  eighth-note  figure,  and  next  by 
triplet  quarter  notes,  with  a  third  voice  added  later.  Such 
a  serious  style  prefigured  the  variations  upon  dance  tunes, 
which  were  especially  cultivated  by  William  Byrd  (1538- 
1623).  In  such  variations  the  melody  was  first  harmonized 
in  simple  fashion,  and  was  afterwards  played  several  times 
in  the  same  part,  with  slight  changes,  while  the  accom- 
panying parts  were  varied  in  rhythm  and  style,  becoming 
generally  quicker  in  tempo.  To  modern  ears  the  result 
is  monotonous,  as  the  same  key  and  time  signature  is  main- 
tained throughout;  but  the  variety  in  presentation  must 
have  been  grateful  after  the  simplicity  of  the  dance  tunes. 

The  Virgfinal  Book.  —  Other  popular  forms  were  the 
Fancie,  in  which  several  melodic  subjects  were  imitated 
in  the  various  voices;  and  the  Pavane,  a  dance  in  common 
time,  whose  theme  was  repeated  in  the  following  Galliarde, 
a  dance  in  triple  time.  These  and  other  forms  are  used  in 
a  curious  collection  of  clavier  pieces  now  preserved  at 
Cambridge,  and  known  as  Queen  Elizabeth's  Virginal  Book. 
This  collection,  consisting  of  four  hundred  and  eighteen 
manuscript  pages,  written  on  a  six-lined  staff,  contains 
seventy  compositions  by  Byrd,  besides  others  by  most  of 


PURCELL.  257 

the  composers  of  the  EHzabethan  era,  Hke  Tallis,  Dr.  Bull, 
Giles,  Farnaby  and  many  others. 

Leading  Elizabethan  Composers. — Byrd  was  a  pupil  of 
Thomas  Tallis  (d.  1585),  the  renowned  church  composer, 
and  together  they  were  made  organists  of  Queen  Elizabeth's 
Chapel,  in  1575,  receiving  also  the  sole  right  to  print  music. 
Another  musician  who  deserves  special  mention  is  Dr.  John 
Bull  (1563-1628),  who  won  world-wide  fame  as  organist 
and  clavier  player,  finally  becoming  organist  at  Antwerp 
Cathedral,  which  post  he  held  until  his  death.  His  clavier 
compositions  show  great  technical  fluency.  Orlando  Gib- 
bons (1583- 1625),  a  Doctor  of  Music  at  Oxford,  and  organ- 
ist at  Westminster  Abbey,  wrote  excellently  in  the  pre- 
vailing style.  Shakespeare  testifies  to  the  popularity  of 
clavier  playing  at  this  time  in  one  of  his  sonnets,  where 
he  speaks  of  the  keys  as 

"O'er  whom  thy  fingers  walk  with  gentle  gait." 

Although  these  early  English  composers  wrote  with  mu- 
sical solidity,  their  compositions  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have 
added  much  to  the  development  of  the  instrumental  style, 
or  to  clavier  technic;  and,  in  fact,  they  amounted  to  little 
more  than  a  side  issue  in  music,  withdrawn  from  the  gen- 
eral advancement,  and  valuable  chiefly  as  curiosities.  The 
melodies  were  apt  to  be  wearisome,  through  monotonous 
repetitions,  the  rhythms  to  lack  variety,  and  the  modula- 
tions to  appear  chiefly  in  the  form  of  unsuccessful  attempts. 

The  Parthenia. — During  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century 
the  virginal  retained  its  popularity,  although  political  tur- 
moils prevented  much  positive  advancement  in  music.  The 
"Parthenia,"  a  volume  containing  the  first  printed  collec- 
tion of  virginal  music,  appeared  in  161 1,  composed  of 
twenty-one  pieces  by  Byrd,  Bull  and  Gibbons;  and  a  sim- 
ilar volume  followed,  with  compositions  for  virginal  and 
bass  viol,  by  Robert  Hole. 

Purcell. — In  the  reign  of  Charles  II  (1660-1685)  music 
again  came  to  the  fore,  and  was  ably  promoted  by  Henry 
Purcell,  who  was  born  in  the  year  when  Cromwell  died. 


258  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

1658,  and  died  in  1695.  Purcell  is  a  shining-  figure  in  Eng- 
lish musical  history,  through  his  ability  as  an  opera  com- 
poser, in  which  capacity  he  produced  bright  and  pithy 
works,  thoroughly  English  in  spirit,  and  healthy  in  tone. 
He  published  a  volume  of  twelve  clavier  sonatas  in  1683, 
with  parts  also  for  two  violins  and  a  bass  viol,  founded  on 
the  model  of  the  Italian  violin  sonatas,  each  having  an 
Adagio,  a  Canzona,  a  slow  movement  and  an  Air.  Later 
he  published  other  sonatas,  besides  suites  and  separate 
pieces  for  the  clavier.  Upon  the  advent  of  Handel,  how- 
ever, the  English  composers  became,  for  the  most  part, 
mere  imitators  of  his  style,  which  had  so  caught  the  national 
ear  as  to  well-nigh  eclipse  all  other  kinds  of  music.  The 
early  English  school,  therefore,  can  be  said  to  have  had  its 
last  exponent  in  the  person  of  Purcell. 

Kise  of  the  French  School.  —  In  France  a  school  of 
clavier  compositions  developed  during  the  brilliant  reign  of 
Louis  XIV  (1643-1715),  which  did  much  toward  imparting 
elegance  and  polish,  besides  characteristic  rhythms  and  tech- 
nical figures,  to  clavier  music.  The  head  of  this  school  and 
the  personal  teacher  of  many  succeeding  clavier  composers 
and  players  was  Andre  Champion  de  Chambonnieres  (d. 
1670),  who  became  court  clavier  player  to  the  king.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  master  of  a  full  tone  on  the  harpsi- 
chord attained  by  none  other  than  himself;  he  also  pub- 
lished two  books  of  clavier  compositions,  written  in  the 
pure  harmonic  style,  and  showing  the  tendency  toward  bril- 
liant embellishments  which  became  a  characteristic  of  his 
successors.  Of  his  pupils,  Jean  Henry  d'Anglebert  (d. 
1691),  was  clavier  player  at  court,  and  published  in  1689 
a  book  containing  clavier  arrangements  of  airs  and  dances 
from  the  operas  of  Lully,  with  rules  for  their  execution. 

The  Couperin  Family. — Two,  at  least,  of  the  famous  mu- 
sical family  of  Couperin  also  came  under  the  instruction  of 
Champion.  These  were  Louis  Couperin  (1630-1665),  and 
Francois  Couperin  (1631-1701),  who,  with  their  brother 
Charles  Couperin  (1638-1669),  and  his  son  Francois  Cou- 
perin, called  "le  Grand"   (1668-1733),  were  all  at  various 


FRANQOIS    COUPERIN.  259 

Hmes  organists  of  the  church  of  St.  Gervais,  at  Paris.  The 
Couperins  may  be  considered  as  classic  composers  for  the 
clavier,  as  their  style,  though  having  an  harmonic  basis, 
was  mostly  in  the  line  of  instrumental  voice  writing.  The 
first-named  published  three  suites  of  dances  for  clavier; 
and  the  second  was  eminently  popular  as  a  teacher. 

Francois  Couperin. — Frangois  Couperin,  "le  Grand,"  de- 
serves special  attention,  and  has  been  called  the  first  great 
composer  distinctively  for  the  clavier.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
the  organist  Thomelin,  and  rose  quickly  to  so  commanding 
a  position  as  player  of  the  organ  and  clavier  that,  in  1701, 
he  was  appointed  court  clavier  player  and  organist  at  the 
Royal  Chapel.  He  was  very  accurate  as  a  composer;  and 
in  the  four  books  of  clavier  pieces  which  he  published  suc- 
cessively, he  gave  minute  directions  for  interpreting  the 
wealth  of  ornamentation  with  which  his  melodies  are  sur- 
rounded. Most  of  these  pieces  are  written  in  two  voices, 
with  the  upper  melody  most  prominent;  and  they  reflect 
the  artificial  show  and  glitter  of  the  French  court  in  their 
endless  turns  and  embellishments.  Yet  for  this  very  reason 
they  have  amplified  the  resources  of  clavier  compositions, 
preparing  the  way  for  composers  like  Scarlatti,  Bach  and 
Handel.  Many  of  them  show  the  French  taste  toward  at- 
taching definite  meaning  to  music,  by  their  fanciful  titles, 
like  "La  tendre  Nanette,"  "La  Flatteuse" — a  custom  fol- 
lowed by  others  of  this  school.  Couperin  wrote  also  a 
treatise  on  clavier  touch,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  make 
use  of  the  thumb  in  playing. 

Louis  Marchand  (1669- 1732)  was  a  brilliant  though  dis- 
sipated figure  in  clavier  playing.  Becoming  organist  at  the 
court  of  Versailles,  he  lost  the  post  through  his  reckless 
habits,  and,  going  to  Dresden,  he  was  somewhat  subdued 
in  his  conceit  by  the  evident  superiority  of  Bach.  On  his 
return  to  Paris,  he  became  exceedingly  popular  as  a  teacher, 
although  his  extravagant  style  of  living  brought  him  finally 
to  poverty.  His  pupil,  Louis  Claude  Daquin  (1694-1772), 
received  through  him  an  appointment  as  organist  at  the 
church  of  St.   Paul,  in  preference  to  Rameau,   of  whose 


26o 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


superiority  Marchand  became  jealous.     Daquin  published  a 
number  of  rather  superficial  clavier  pieces. 

Jean-Phillippe  Rameau,  the  last  and  greatest  light  of  this 
school,  has  even  greater  fame  as  an  opera  composer.  He 
was  born  at  Dijon  in  1683,  and  displayed  so  great  musical 
talent  when  a  mere  child  that,  although  his  parents  had  in- 


Jean-Phillippe  Rameau. 


tended  him  for  another  profession,  he  was  finally  sent  to 
Italy  to  study  music.  After  spending  some  time  there,  he 
joined  the  orchestra  of  an  opera  troupe,  traveling  about 
France  and  gaining  an  insight  into  dramatic  composition. 
Upon  going  to  Paris  he  studied  with  Marchand,  who  recog- 
nized and  feared  his  talent,  and  who  finally  was  the  means 


LESSON    HELPS.  25 1 

of  his  leaving  Paris.  Later,  however,  he  obtained  an  organ 
position  outside  of  Paris,  and  soon  attracted  attention  not 
only  by  his  playing,  but  also  by  the  publication,  in  1726, 
of  a  treatise  on  Harmony.  In  this  he  reduced  the  study  of 
chords  to  a  scientific  foundation,  and  won  his  title  of  the 
name  of  creator  of  the  modern  science  of  Harmony.  Re- 
turning to  Paris,  he  now  secured  an  organ  position  there, 
and  set  to  work  upon  the  series  of  dramatic  productions 
which  made  him  the  foremost  opera  composer  of  his  day, 
superior  even  to  the  popular  Lully.  In  1737,  he  published 
another  theoretical  work,  in  which  the  principles  of  Equal 
Temperament,  which  J.  S.  Bach  had  adopted  fifteen  years 
before,  were  so  clearly  stated  as  to  make  their  establish- 
ment permanent  for  future  composers.  Rameau's  theories 
were  the  subject  of  much  controversy  in  his  day ;  but  many 
distinguished  contemporaries,  like  Rousseau  and  Voltaire, 
were  his  warm  partisans.     He  died  in  1764. 

Rameau's  Clavier  Works. — His  numerous  clavier  composi- 
tions show  great  advance  in  freedom  of  expression,  and 
are  written  mostly  in  three  parts,  with  an  occasional  suc- 
cession of  full  chords.  Many  of  these  have  descriptive 
titles,  such  as  "La  Poule,"  in  which  the  cackling  of  a  hen 
is  cleverly  imitated.  Others  are  in  the  form  of  dance  suites. 
The  order  of  Prelude,  Allemande,  Courante,  Sarabande, 
Gigue  was  made  the  basis  of  these  suites  as  well  as  those 
of  Couperin,  although  this  order  admitted  of  considerable 
variation ;  and  no  other  principle  of  Unity  appears  in  them, 
with  the  exception  of  a  common  key. 

End  of  the  Early  French  School. — The  growing  impor- 
tance of  the  German  school  now  came  to  be  felt  in  France 
so  strongly  that  the  French  school  came  to  lose  its  individ- 
uality. We  therefore  turn  our  attention  to  the  important 
developments  in  instrumental  music  which  were  effected 
in  Germany. 

References. 

Weitzmann. — History  of  Pianoforte  Playing. 
Rimbault. — The  Pianoforte. 


262  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Nauniann. — History  of  Music,  \'ol.  I. 
Henderson. — rrckules  and   Studies. 
Naylor. — An  Elizabethan  X'irginal   Book. 

Musical  Illustrations. 
Weitzmann's  History,  pages  314-329. 
Rimbault. — "The  Pianoforte,"  pages  237,  240,  245,  248. 
253,  262-283,  316. 

Litollf  Ed.,  No.  397,  2nd  vol.  of  "Music  by  Old  Masters.' 
Augener  Ed.,  Nos.  8300,  8299. 
Breitkopf  Ed.,  as  for  Chapter  H. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Tell  about  early  English  instrumental  music. 

Tell  about  music  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time. 

Describe  the  Variation  form  used  by  Byrd. 

What  was  the  Virginal  Book? 

What  was  the  style  of  the  Elizabethan  composers? 

What  was  the  "Parthenia"? 

Give  an  account  of  Purcell  and  his  work. 

Who  was  the  founder  of  the  French  school? 

What  family  figures  prominently  in  the  French  school? 

Who  was  the  greatest  member  of  this  family?  Tell 
about  his  work. 

Tell  about  Marchand  and  Daquin. 

What  great  theorist  is  prominent  in  French  clavier  mu- 
sic?   Tell  about  his  work. 

Note  that  the  English  school  was  at  its  height  in  the 
reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  Purcell,  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
n,  being  the  greatest  light  of  the  school.  The  strength  of 
the  French  school  was  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 


LESSON  XXVIII. 

The  German  Polyphonic  Clavier  School. 

German  Mastery  of  Polyphonic  Music. — The  Italians,  with 
their  quick  perception  of  structural  beauty,  have  been  the 
pioneers  in  the  invention  and  use  of  most  art  forms.  So  it 
happened,  in  the  history  of  instrumental  music,  that  they 
were  the  ones  to  invent  and  give  to  other  nations  the 
vehicle  of  expression,  while  it  remained  for  their  pupils, 
notably,  in  this  case,  the  composers  of  Germany,  to  fill  these 
forms  out  with  the  expression  of  real  and  deep  feeling. 
The  German  tendency  toward  serious  and  philosophical 
thought  found  the  intricacies  of  polyphonic  music,  or  the 
simultaneous  flow  of  independent  melodies,  admirably 
adapted  to  their  need  of  expression;  and  when  this  style 
of  voice  writing  was  applied  to  instrumental  compositions, 
German  musicians  found  a  branch  of  art  in  which  they 
were  admirably  qualified  to  excel.  So,  from  being  mere 
pupils  of  the  Italians,  they  advanced  to  the  production  of 
works  of  much  more  distinguished  character  and  deeper, 
richer  content  than  was  possible  to  mere  beauty  of  form 
and  melody. 

Hasler. — In  the  second  half  of  the  i6th  century,  the 
clavier  was  popular  in  Germany,  disputing  the  place  of 
the  lute  as  a  social  instrument,  although  organ  and  clavier 
compositions  were  identical,  as  in  Italy.  There  is  a  rec- 
ord of  the  publication  of  two  books  of  pieces  for  organ 
and  "instrument" — ^by  which  is  meant  the  clavier — in 
1575-77,  in  which  there  were  dance  tunes  with  accom- 
panying chords,  Hans  Leo  Hasler  (1564-1612),  a  pupil  of 
A.  Gabrieli,  and  fellow-student  with  G.  Gabrieli,  was  espe- 
cially prominent  as  organ  and  clavier  player  and  composer 

(263) 


264  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

during  this  epoch,  pubHshing  a  number  of  such  dances 
written  for  the  organ  or  the  clavier. 

Froberger. — The  devastating  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618- 
48)  put  an  end  to  artistic  ambition  during  its  progress. 
However,  art  quickly  recovered  at  its  close,  and  a  number 
of  worthy  musicians  appeared.  An  interesting  figure  among 
them,  and  a  man  who  has  been  called  the  first  German 
clavier  virtuoso,  was  Johann  Jacob  Froberger  (1605-1667). 
Showing  great  promise  as  a  boy,  he  was  brought  to  the 
notice  of  the  Austrian  Kaiser,  Ferdinand  III,  who  sent 
him  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  with  Frescobaldi  for  three 
years.  After  this  w'e  hear  of  him  as  a  successful  performer 
at  Paris,  and,  on  his  return  to  \'ienna,  as  court  organist,  in 
which  position  he  won  wide-spread  fame.  A  remarkable 
story  is  told  of  a  perilous  journey  to  England,  where  he 
arrived  penniless,  and  of  his  subsequent  recognition  and 
his  cordial  reception  by  Charles  II,  who  was  delighted  with 
his  improvisation  upon  the  harpsichord.  Afterwards  re- 
turning to  Vienna,  he  resigned  his  post  there,  through 
some  disagreement,  and  lived  afterwards  in  retirement.  In 
a  number  of  Caprices,  Toccatas  and  the  like,  written  in  the 
contrapuntal  style,  he  definitely  adopted  the  five-lined  staff, 
and  introduced  many  embellishments,  after  the  French 
fashion.  He  possessed  much  charming  melodic  invention, 
and,  in  his  Toccatas  employed  a  treatment  of  his  subject  in 
definite  sections,  which  afterwards  appeared  in  the  fugue 
form.  Froberger  anticipates  the  program  style  of  music,  as 
he  is  said  to  have  improvised  descriptions  of  events,  like 
that  of  the  Count  von  Thurn's  crossing  of  the  Rhine,  which 
he  depicted  in  twenty-six  pieces. 

Johann  Kaspar  Kerl  (1625-90),  also  sent  by  Ferdinand  III 
to  Rome,  studied  there  with  Carissimi,  the  oratorio  writer, 
becoming  accomplished  as  an  extemporizer.  He  occupied 
a  number  of  organ  positions  in  Vienna  and  Munich,  also 
teaching  the  clavier,  and  wrote  compositions  which  show 
a  tendency  toward  the  modern  scale  systems.  Johann 
Pachelbel  (1653-1706),  celebrated  as  organ  and  clavier 
player,  wrote  pleasing  works  for  the  clavier,  in  which  he 


INSTRUMENTAL    POLYPHONIC    FORMS.  265 

tried  to  follow  out  the  characteristics  of  the  instrument. 
Many  of  these  were  in  the  form  of  variations.  Georg  Muffat 
(d.  1704)  showed  in  his  compositions  a  tendency  toward 
French  ornamentation,  and  his  son  Gottlieb  (1683-1770), 
a  pupil  of  the  contrapuntist  J.  J.  Fux,  was  organist  to  the 
Kaiser  Charles  VI,  in  Vienna,  and  clavier  teacher  to  the  Im- 
perial family.  His  clavier  compositions  were  in  the  form 
of  Versettes  and  Toccatas. 

Eighteenth  Century  Clavier  Composers.  —  The  Thirty 
Years'  War  exercised  a  demoralizing  influence  upon  music 
trades,  and  many  excellent  musicians  were  unable  to  have 
their  compositions  published  in  consequence.  The  result 
is,  that  comparatively  few  specimens  of  the  works  of  the 
composers  mentioned  have  come  down  to  us  in  available 
form.  Approaching  the  i8th  century,  we  now  come  to  a 
group  of  composers  who  represent  the  most  brilliant  epoch 
of  early  clavier  work.  Their  productions,  while  retaining 
the  dignity  and  complexity  of  the  contrapuntal  school,  yet 
use  its  material  with  a  freedom  of  modulation  and  of  dis- 
sonant chords  sufficient  to  express  genuine  emotional  ideas 
through  their  medium. 

Reinken  and  Buxtehude. — The  Hamburg  organist  Johann 
Adam  Reinken  (1623- 1722),  a  native  of  Holland,  wrote  a 
number  of  clavier  compositions,  publishing  in  1704,  pieces 
for  two  violins  and  harpsichord.  Dietrich  Buxtehude  (1637- 
1707),  organist  at  St.  Mary's  Church,  Liibeck,  from  1668, 
excelled  in  free  style  of  writing  for  clavier.  The  latter 
gave  a  series  of  Sunday  evening  concerts  at  his  church 
which  gained  renown  through  all  the  surrounding  country; 
and  J.  S.  Bach  himself  is  said  to  have  walked  to  these 
concerts,  a  distance  of  fifty  miles. 

Instrumental  Polyphonic  Forms. — These  men  have  been 
mentioned  largely  because  their  work  made  possible  the  re- 
sults whxh  Bach  afterwards  attained  from  an  elaboration 
of  what  they  had  already  accomplished.  It  was  among 
such  eniinent  German  organists  that  the  instrumental  Fugue, 
the  highest  instrumental  type  of  polyphonic  music,  took 
definite  shape,  consisting  of  an  Exposition,  in  which  the 


266  THE   HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

Subject,  Answer  and  Countersubject  were  announced  by 
the  various  voices;  and  a  subsequent  Development,  in 
which,  according  to  certain  laws  more  or  less  strict,  the 
material  presented  was  carried  through  a  variety  of  phases 
and  brought  finally  to  a  triumphant  close.  Of  other  forms, 
like  the  Toccata  and  Canzona,  the  tendency  came  to  be 
toward  more  freedom  of  treatment  on  the  one  hand,  and 
an  increasing  definiteness  and  consistency  on  the  other. 

Handel's  Early  Life.  —  A  composer  must  now  be  men- 
tioned whose  work  lay  chiefly  in  other  fields  than  the 
clavier,  but  who  nevertheless  drew  much  of  his  inspiration 
from  the  strings  of  the  harpsichord.  This  was  George 
Frederick  Handel  (1685-1759),  who  was  born  at  Halle,  and 
whose  musical  genius  asserted  itself  so  strenuously  that, 
although  his  father  was  strongly  opposed,  he  learned  the 
harpsichord  as  a  mere  child,  and  became  so  proficient  a 
performer  that  the  reigning  Duke  of  Saxe-Weissenfels, 
hearing  him  play,  insisted  on  his  receiving  a  thorough  mu- 
sical education.  So  he  was  placed  under  Zachau,  a  com- 
petent organist  and  musician,  at  his  native  place,  with  whom 
he  studied  diligently.  After  his  father's  death  he  went  to 
Hamburg,  entering  the  orchestra  of  the  Opera  house  and 
rising  to  the  post  of  harpsichordist.  Launching  out  as  an 
opera  composer,  he  began  to  acquire  a  reputation,  and  in 
1706  went  to  Italy,  meeting  many  distinguished  musicians 
there,  among  them  Domenico  Scarlatti,  with  whom  he  had 
a  contest  as  to  ability  as  clavichordist  and  organist,  and 
winning  fresh  laurels. 

Handel  in  England. — In  1707,  he  became  music  director 
to  the  Elector  of  Hanover,  but  quickly  left  the  post  for 
England,  where,  with  the  exception  of  short  intervals,  he 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life,  becoming  a  naturalized 
English  subject.  It  was  no  wonder  that  he  was  so  warmly 
attached  to  his  adopted  country,  since  he  became  the  pop- 
ular idol,  even  winning  over  the  king,  George  I,  formerly 
Elector  of  Hanover,  who,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
was  at  first  angry  with  Handel  for  his  desertion  of  the  post 
in  his  service  at  Hanover. 


Geoboe  Fbiedbich  Handel. 


268  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Handel's  Operas  and  Oratorios. — Handel  was  of  an  iras- 
cible disposition,  and,  living  in  the  artificial  atmosphere  of 
London,  among  wits  and  satirists  like  Dr.  Johnson,  Addison 
and  Pope,  he  was  constantly  embroiled  with  the  cabals  of 
his  rivals,  and  the  fickleness  of  the  public.  He  produced  a 
great  number  of  operas,  most  of  them  successful ;  but  as 
theatrical  manager  he  met  with  severe  losses,  and  finally 
gave  up  opera  waiting  in  despair,  and  turned  to  the  com- 
position of  oratorios.  The  result  was  that  in  this  form  he 
has  left  his  most  enduring  and  elevated  compositions ;  for 
while  his  operas  were  sometimes  written  down  to  the  pop- 
ular taste  for  empty  Italian  melody,  the  lofty  themes  of 
his  oratorios  inspired  him  to  his  grandest  and  most  sincere 
style,  which,  moreover,  was  rendered  the  more  dramatic 
and  intelligible  by  his  knowledge  of  the  requirements  of 
his  audiences. 

Handel's  Clavier  Works.  —  Handel  was  an  expert  per- 
former on  the  harpsichord,  for  which  he  wrote  two  sets  of 
Suites,  besides  a  number  of  single  pieces.  The  Suites,  of 
which  the  first  set  is  by  far  the  better,  are  written  mostly 
in  the  dance  forms,  but  with  the  interpolation  of  more  ser- 
ious forms,  such  as  Airs,  Variations  and  Fugues.  The 
contrapuntal  style  is  here  most  prominent,  although  with 
harmonic  basis,  and  with  a  laxity  in  the  strictness  of  the 
voice  writing,  caused  by  the  occasional  use  of  extra  notes 
to  complete  chords.  Some  of  the  variations  are  worked  up 
to  effective  climaxes,  and  have  running  passages  and  broken 
chords,  in  which  the  resources  of  the  clavier  are  cleverly 
drawn  upon. 

Handel's  Last  Years. — Handel  became  blind  in  1752,  but 
continued  to  take  part  in  the  performances  of  his  works 
till  the  year  of  his  death.  Choleric  as  was  his  tempera- 
ment, the  known  generosity  of  his  nature  and  his  devotion 
to  the  ideals  of  his  art  made  him  the  idol  of  the  English 
people.     He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Mattheson. — A  close  associate  of  Handel,  when  he  was 
in  the  Hamburg  orchestra,  was  Johann  Mattheson  (1681- 
1764),  famed  for  his  literary  writings  on  musical  subjects 


bach's  early  life.  269 

tio  less  than  for  his  musical  ability.  He  wrote  suites,  a 
sonata  and  fugues  in  two  parts,  for  clavier,  which  were  of 
excellent  workmanship. 

Bach's  Early  Life. — But  all  other  names  in  the  domain 
of  polyphonic  instrumental  music  pale  before  that  of  Johann 
Sebastian  Bach,  the  culmination  of  the  school  of  voice  writ- 
ing, and  the  musician  who  put  the  stamp  of  greatness  on 
all  former  styles,  while  at  the  same  time  acting  as  guide 
to  future  fields  of  composition.  Born  at  Eisenach  in  1685, 
as  a  scion  of  a  family  the  members  of  which  had  been  mu- 
sical leaders  for  generations,  he  seems  to  have  embodied 
in  himself  the  sum  of  the  genius  of  his  forefathers.  Tlie 
story  of  his  life  is  a  prosaic  one,  as  he  filled  it  with  un- 
flagging industry,  carrying  out  his  unswerving  ideals  of 
his  art,  caring  little  for  mere  popularity,  and  rearing  a 
large  family  of  sons  and  daughters,  some  of  whom  proved 
worthy  to  continue  his  work.  As  a  boy,  he  lost  both 
parents  at  the  age  of  ten,  and  was  taught  clavier  playing 
by  his  elder  brother,  Johann  Christian,  who  took  him  in 
charge.  He  seized  with  avidity  every  opportunity  to  study 
his  beloved  music,  copying  hundreds  of  pages  of  manu- 
script, listening  to  every  musical  performance  possible, 
drinking  in  and  assimilating  the  ideas  thus  gained,  to  re- 
produce them  later  on,  stamped  with  his  genius. 

Later  Life. — At  his  brother's  death  he  went  to  Liineburg 
as  choir  boy,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  Reinken's 
work.  At  eighteen  he  was  violinist  in  the  court  band  at 
Weimar,  shortly  afterward  becoming  organist  at  a  church 
at  Arnstadt.  His  next  position  was  as  court  organist  at 
Weimar,  in  1708,  where  many  of  his  most  important  organ 
compositions  were  written.  This  post  he  left  in  1717  for 
that  of  court  chapel-master  at  Anhalt-Kothen,  where  he 
remained  six  years,  after  which  he  went  to  Leipzig,  as 
Cantor  of  the  Thomasschule,  staying  there  till  his  death, 
in  1750. 

Incidents  of  Bach's  Career.  —  Bach's  life  was  not  alto- 
gether a  happy  one,  as  he  was  much  annoyed  at  the  per- 
secutions of  his  rivals;    and,  like  Handel,  he  was  afflicted 


270  THE   HISTORY   OF   MUSIC. 

with  blindness  in  his  last  years.  Never  considering  the 
element  of  mere  popularity  in  his  work,  his  greatness  was 
little  appreciated  in  his  lifetime;  and  it  was  fifty  years 
after  his  death  before  it  began  to  receive  recognition.  A 
pleasant  incident  of  his  declining  years  was  his  cordial  re- 
ception by  Frederick  the  Great  at  his  court,  in  1747,  where 
Bach's  son  was  in  favor  as  harpsichord  player,  and  where 
Bach  was  shown  a  number  of  excellent  new  Silbermann 
pianofortes.  It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  he  and 
Handel,  although  born  in  the  same  year,  were  destined 
never  to  meet. 

The  Well-Tempered  Clavichord. — It  has  been  stated  that 
Bach  adopted  the  principle  of  Equal  Temperament  for 
clavier  tuning.  In  support  of  this  he  wrote  twenty-four 
preludes  and  fugues,  one  in  each  major  and  minor  key, 
requiring,  therefore,  equal  temperament  for  their  perfor- 
mance; and  later  added  a  second  similar  volume.  The 
whole  forty-eight  make  up  the  monumental  work  called 
the  "Well-Tempered  Clavichord" ;  and  this  work,  written 
originally  for  the  clavichord,  has  remained  the  bulwark  of 
piano  playing  to  the  present  day.  Its  fugues,  written  with 
consummate  mastery  of  the  technic  of  instrumental  poly- 
phony, are  not  only  models  of  skill  in  voice  writing,  but 
also  are  made  the  vehicles  of  genuine  moods  and  emotions ; 
while  each  preceding  prelude  gives  the  keynote  of  expres- 
sion to  its  following  fugue,  although  written  in  a  much 
freer  style,  frequently  closely  allied  with  the  works  of  the 
purely  harmonic  school. 

Bach's  Other  Clavier  Works.  —  Bach  wrote  also  sonatas 
and  concertos,  the  latter  for  one,  two  or  three  claviers, 
sometimes  with  string  accompaniment.  These  works,  al- 
though comprising  several  movements,  do  not  otherwise 
coincide  with  the  harmonic  sonata  form,  since  their  style  is 
more  polyphonic,  and  since  they  are  occupied  mainly  with 
the  development  of  a  single  subject.  His  suites,  of  which 
he  wrote  two  sets,  called  respectively  English  and  French, 
are  no  less  important,  since  in  them  the  dance  forms  are 
invested  with  a  seriousness  and  an  artistic  finish  hitherto 


JOHAITK   SEBASXIAK   BACH. 


2^2  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

unattained.  Of  other  clavier  works,  his  famous  "Chromatic 
Fantasie"  has  a  weakh  of  harmonic  combinations,  fiery  runs 
and  arpeggios,  and  dramatic  recitative  which  give  it  a 
worthy  placs  in  the  Romantic  school  developed  much  later, 
and  of  whose  style  it  was  the  forerunner.  His  "Inventions," 
studies  written  originally  for  his  children,  in  two  or  three 
parts,  are  an  excellent  introduction  to  the  study  of  his 
larger  works. 

Reforms  in  Fingering. — Another  gift  of  Bach's  to  coming 
generations  was  his  thorough  revision  of  clavier  playi)ig. 
Raising  the  hand  above  the  keys  from  its  former  flat  posi- 
tion, he. brought  the  tlininb  into  use,  and  by  inventing  the 
scale  fingering,  afterwards  universally  adopted,  he  opened 
the  way  to  the  style  of  brilliant  and  smoothly  running  pas- 
sages vvhicn  was  afterwards  so  highly  developed.  Thus 
Bach,  while  putting  the  final  touch  to  the  old  forms,  gave 
an  impetus  to  the  harmonic  style,  which  was  then  in  its 
infancy,  and  of  which  we  shall  now  trace  the  course. 

References. 

Naumann. — History  of  ^lusic,  \'ol.  I.  Vol.  H,  Bach  and 
Handel. 

Weitzmann. — History  of  Pianoforte  Playing. 

Henderson. — Preludes  and  Studies. 

Spitta. — Life  of  Bach. 

Parry. — Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music.  Chapter  X'HI. 

Williams. — Bach   (Master  Musicians  Series). 

Musical  Illustrations. 

Weitzmann's  History,  pages  330,  336. 
Rimbault. — The  Pianoforte,  pages  299,  2)2>^y  340- 
Litollf  ed.,  No.  396,  ist  volume  of  Music  by  Old  Masters. 
Augener  ed.,  No.  8297. 
Breitkopf  Ed.,  as  before. 

Works  of  Handel  and  Bach,  published  in  all  the  cheap 
editions. 


lesson  helps.  273 

Questions, 

Compare  the  Italian  and  the  German  tendencies. 

Give  an  account  of  Hasler. 

Tell  about  Froberger.     In  what  styles  did  he  write? 

Tell  about  Kerl,  Pachelbel  and  the  Aluffats. 

What  advances  do  we  find  in  the  works  of  the  composers 
of  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  century? 

What  forms  now  begin  to  take  definite  shape? 

Give  a  sketch  of  Handel's  early  life. 

Give  a  sketch  of  Handel's  work  in  England. 

State  the  characteristics  of  Handel's  clavier  works. 

What  affliction  befell  him  during  the  last  years  of  his  life  " 

What  associate  of  Handel's  was  famous  as  writer  and 
composer? 

Tell  about  Bach's  early  life. 

Tell  about  Bach's  later  life. 

What  great  king  invited  Bach  to  visit  his  court? 

Describe  the  "Well-Tempered  Clavichord." 

Mention  other  clavier  works  by  Bach. 

What  improvements  in  technic  did  Bach  introduce  r 


LESSON  XXIX. 

The  German  Sonata  Composers,  to  Haydn. 

Formation  of  Harmonic  Design. — Side  by  side  with  tht 
ultimate  development  of  polyphonic  music  in  its  perfected 
instrumental  form,  the  forms  of  the  new  harmonic  style 
were  being  worked  out,  by  long  processes  of  development. 
Finally,  just  as  the  Fugue  came  to  be  adopted  as  the  high- 
est form  of  the  old  school,  so  the  Sonata  was  chosen  as 
the  most  dignified  exponent  of  the  new  art.  But,  while  the 
old  school  arrived  at  a  high  state  of  perfection  at  the  hands 
of  Handel  and  Bach,  the  necessity  for  inventing  and  ex- 
perimenting with  the  possibilities  of  the  new  forms  made 
the  first  attempts  in  this  direction  seem  childish  and  crude 
beside  Bach's  work ;  so  that  it  was  several  generations  after 
him  before  the  harmonic  style  was  brought  to  the  stage  at 
which  it  could  be  made  to  express  ideas  of  equal  magnitude, 
and  do  it  successfully. 

Development  of  the  Sonata. — The  original  plan  associated 
with  the  Sonata  was  that  of  combining  several  movements 
in  such  a  way  as  to  appeal,  in  the  completed  product,  to 
all  kinds  of  emotion,  intellectual,  spiritual  and  physical.  In 
the  hands  of  its  founders,  the  Italian  violinists,  the  exposi- 
tion of  this  thought  had  been  mainly  contrapuntal.  We 
have  seen  how  Domenico  Scarlatti  arrived  at  a  style  in 
which  a  single  part,  supported  by  an  accompaniment,  was 
applied  to  the  clavier,  in  a  manner  which  brought  out  its 
striking  characteristics;  and  we  have  now  to  trace  the 
progress  of  this  style  in  Germany,  up  to  the  point  where 
the  various  contributions  of  different  composers  could  be 
united  into  a  systematic  and  fixed  form,  sufficient  for  the 
free  expression  of  the  highest  musical  inspiration,  and 
adapted  to  all  the  varied  demands  of  instrumental  music. 
(274) 


EVOLUTION    OF   THE   SONATA.  275 

Essential  Elements  of  a  Sonata. — Certain  points  seem  to 
have  been  generally  agreed  upon  as  necessary  components 
of  the  Sonata.  The  first  was  its  union  of  several  move- 
ments, from  two  up  to  five,  or  occasionally  even  more.  The 
second  was  that  the  first  movement  should  display  the  most 
ingenuity  and  elaboration.  This  movement  thus  came  to 
receive  the  most  attention,  and  showed  a  process  of  evolu- 
tion from  the  simple  dance  form  consisting  of  a  modula- 
tion from  a  principal  key  to  a  contrasting  key  and  back 
again,  to  a  highly  organized  and  conventional  art-form — 
a  form,  moreover,  of  such  a  capacity  that  it  could  be  used 
as  the  mould  for  the  principal  movement  of  a  wide  range 
of  compositions,  from  a  short  pianoforte  sonata  to  a  grand 
symphony. 

Changes  in  the  Old  Dance  Form. — In  this  evolution,  the 
first  half  of  the  dance  form  was  made  to  consist  of  a  Sub- 
ject, either  thematic  or  melodic,  clearly  defining  the  key, 
and  then  a  modulating  passage,  generally  freer  in  its  runs 
and  arpeggios,  leading  up  to  the  point  of  contrast;  and 
the  first  section  was  then  repeated.  The  greatest  changes 
took  place  in  the  second  half.  At  first,  this  consisted  in  the 
repeat  of  the  Principal  Theme  in  the  contrasting  key,  and 
a  return  to  the  first  key  through  modulations  similar  to 
those  in  the  first  section;  later,  however,  since  this  design 
gave  little  opportunity  for  a  display  of  the  composer's  orig- 
inality, the  enunciation  of  the  Subject  in  the  contrasting 
key  was  followed  by  a  free  passage,  which  gave  ample 
scope  to  the  composer's  fancy ;  after  which  the  subject  again 
appeared  in  the  principal  key,  with  a  concluding  passage  in 
the  same  key. 

Establishment  of  the  Cyclic  Form. — The  form  as  a  whole 
was  now  practically  divided  into  three  sections,  and  a  better 
balance  was  given  to  this  division  by  the  omission  of  the 
second  appearance  of  the  Subject  in  the  contrasting  key, 
and  the  substitution  of  other  material,  either  relevant  or 
contrasting.  The  movement  now  assumed  a  cyclic  form — a 
statement,  leading  to  a  point  of  contrast,  a  free  fantasia, 
and  finally  the  statement,  leading  to  a  close.     This  was 


2/6  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

practically  the  course  of  development  of  what  has  been 
named  the  Sonata  Form,  up  to  the  time  of  Haydn.  We  are 
now  prepared  to  consider  the  especial  contributions  of  com- 
posers to  this  form. 

First  Printed  Clavier  Sonata. — The  first  printed  clavier 
sonata  seems  to  have  been  published  by  Johann  Kuhnau 
(i66o?-i722).  This  was  in  the  key  of  B-flat,  and  was  the 
last  of  several  pieces  in  the  same  volume.  In  the  preface, 
the  author  gives  a  semi-apology  for  its  introduction,  say- 
ing that  he  sees  no  reason  why  sonatas  should  not  be  writ- 
ten for  the  clavier  as  well  as  for  any  other  instrument. 
This  sonata  begins  with  an  Allegro,  followed  by  a  fugal 
movement ;  and  in  the  following  Adagio  movement,  the 
tendency  to  put  the  slow  movement  into  a  contrasting  key 
is  illustrated,  as  this  is  in  D-flat  major.  After  another  Al- 
legro, there  is  a  Da  Capo  to  the  first  part. 

Other  Sonatas  by  Kuhnau. — It  was  difficult  for  the  early 
sonata  writers  to  break  away  entirely  from  the  old  poly- 
phonic style;  and  when  a  part  appeared  in  the  nature  of  a 
Free  Fantasia,  they  generally  had  recourse  to  fugal  work, 
having  no  precedent  in  harmonic  music  to  fall  back  upon. 
Thus,  in  his  seven  sonatas  published  in  1696,  entitled  "Fresh 
Fruits  for  the  Clavier,"  which  show  more  individuality  in 
melodic  invention,  Kuhnau  uses  the  fugal  style  whenever 
the  harmonic  forms  fail  him.  These  sonatas  show  a  prev- 
alence of  ornaments,  which,  he  says,  are  "sugar  to  sweeten 
the  fruits."  A  remarkable  collection  of  clavier  pieces  arc 
his  six  Bible  sonatas,  in  which  the  form  is  entirely  outside 
of  the  development  traced  above,  since  the  various  move- 
uients  of  each  sonata  simply  follow  the  lines  of  a  Bible 
story,  like  that  of  the  "Combat  between  David  and  Goliath," 
which  they  illustrate.  As  samples  of  program  music,  they 
proceed  in  the  steps  of  Pachelbel,  and  others  on  record. 
Kuhnau  studied  law,  and  was  from  1682  organist  at  St. 
Thomas'  Church,  at  Leipzig,  where  he  preceded  J.  S.  Bach. 

Frederick  the  Great's  Influence. — A  great  irfipetus  was 
given  to  German  clavier  music  by  the  interest  with  which, 
like  all  other  forms  of  instrumental  music,  it  was  viewed 


EARLY    SONATA    COMPOSERS.  2/7 

by  Frederick  the  Great  o£  Prussia  (r.  1740-86).  This  war- 
like but  thoroughly  Teutonic  monarch  gathered  at  his  court 
a  brilliant  coterie  of  instrumentalists,  delighting  to  per- 
form with  them  on  his  favorite  instrument,  the  flute.  Al- 
though this  musical  inspiration  was  disturbed  by  the  wars 
in  which  he  engaged,  and  especially  by  the  Seven  Years' 
War  (1756-63),  the  growth  of  clavier  music  was  never- 
theless steady. 

Musical  Journals. — A  number  of  musical  journals  which 
appeared  from  1760  on,  contributed  also  to  this  enthusiasm, 
in  giving  clavier  composers  a  medium  for  bringing  their 
works  before  the  public,  and  also  in  giving  them  the  chance 
to  profit  by  one  another's  experiments.  Many  writers  thus 
came  to  the  fore,  who  aided  materially  in  the  elaboration  of 
harmonic  music  material. 

Other  Early  Composers. — Of  these,  Gottfried  Heinrich 
Stoelzel  (1690-1749),  chapel-master  at  Saxc-Gotha,  wrote 
an  "enharmonic"  clavier  sonata  in  three  parts,  a  Largo  in 
C  minor,  in  V4  time ;  a  short  fugue ;  and  a  Vs  movement, 
in  harmonic  form,  in  which  experiments  in  modulation  were 
tried.  His  successor  at  Saxe-Gotha  was  Georg  Benda  (1721- 
95),  who  published  a  number  of  clavier  pieces  and  sonatas, 
besides  two  concertos  for  clavier  and  string  quartet,  all  01 
w^hich  show  a  desire  for  genuine  expression  in  the  har- 
monic form.  The  first  four-hand  sonatas  seem  to  have 
been  published  by  Charles  Heinrich  Muller,  of  Halberstadt, 
in  1783,  and  another  appeared  in  1784,  by  Ernst  Wilhelm 
Wolf  (1735-92),  court  chapel-master  in  Saxe-Wcimar,  the 
writer  of  numerous  other  clavier  sonatas  and  concertos 
showing  great  purity  and  originality  of  style.  At  the  court 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  at  Berlin,  Christoph  Nichelmann 
(1717-62),  a  pupil  of  Bach,  and  Carl  Fasch  (1736- 1800) 
were  successively  second  harpsichordists.  Both  wrote 
sonatas,  those  of  the  former  in  two  movements,  while  those 
of  the  latter  had  generally  three,  of  a  brilHant  and  attractive 
style.  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Marpurg  (1718-95),  the  dis- 
tinguished Berlin  theoretician,  was  more  successful  in  con- 
trapuntal work  than  in  his  sonatas,  written  in  freer  style. 


a«78  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Georg  Christoph  Wagenseil  (1715-77),  pupil  of  J.  J.  Fux, 
court  music  teacher  and  celebrated  clavier  virtuoso,  wrote 
sonatas  for  clavier  and  violin  and  a  number  for  clavier 
alone. 

Wilhelm  Friedemann  Bach. — Perhaps  the  most  striking 
developments,  however,  were  at  the  hands  of  the  sons  of 
J.  S.  Bach,  who  were  all,  having  come  under  his  direct 
instruction,  of  refined  musical  judgment,  while  some  of 
them  possessed  marks  of  his  genius.  Of  these,  Wilhelm 
Friedemann  Bach  (1710-84),  the  eldest,  called  the  Bach  of 
Halle,  from  his  long  residence  there,  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leipzig,  distinguishing  himself  in  mathematics ; 
was  organist  at  Dresden  and  Halle  successively,  and  finally 
came  to  Frederick  the  Great's  court,  at  Berlin,  through  the 
influence  of  his  brother  Carl.  Although  he  possessed  great 
gifts  as  a  player  and  composer,  his  dissipated  habits  brought 
him  to  disgrace,  and  he  died  in  poverty.  He  wrote  many 
clavier  compositions,  showing  a  bold  use  of  harmonies,  and 
including  sonatas  which  have  decidedly  instrumental  themes 
and  development.  A  large  number  of  his  father's  manu- 
scripts known  to  have  been  in  his  possession  have  been 
irretrievably  lost. 

Johann  Christian  Bach,  the  London  Bach,  youngest  of 
J.  S.  Bach's  sons,  was  born  at  Leipzig  in  1735,  and  died  at 
London  in  1782.  He  studied  with  his  brother,  Carl,  after 
his  father's  death,  and,  afterwards  going  to  Italy,  became 
organist  at  the  Milan  Cathedral.  Gaining  great  favor  in 
this  capacity,  he  was  appointed  concert-director  at  London 
in  1759,  and  there  he  became  a  popular  favorite,  producing 
several  operas  and  receiving  the  appointment  of  music 
master  to  the  royal  family.  His  Italian  experiences  in- 
fluenced his  sonata  writing,  as  his  subjects  are  in  the  style 
of  the  popular,  though  somewhat  trivial  Italian  melody. 
Yet  he  introduced  some  striking  improvements,  notably  that 
of  employing  a  second  contrasting  subject,  instead  of  a 
mere  modulating  or  closing  passage,  at  the  end  of  the  first 
and  third  sections  of  the  sonata  form.  His  graceful  and 
melodious  works  were  fashionable  in  London  society. 


C.    p.    E.    BACH. 


279 


C.  p.  E.  Bach. — The  third  and  greatest  of  Bach's  sons 
was  Carl  Philip  Emanuel  Bach,  the  Berlin  Bach.  Inherit- 
ing his  father's  love  of  genuine  and  forceful  expression, 
he  had  no  less  lofty  ideals  of  his  art,  though  recognizing 
his  inferiority  in  talent.  Also,  perceiving  that  the  harmonic 
school  was  in  the  line  of  progression,  he  devoted  himself 
to  it,  thus  producing  purely  harmonic  works,  which  were 
only  limited  by  the  lack  of  resources  thus  far  discovered. 
He  was  born  at  Weimar,  in  1714,  and,  though  a  student  of 


C.  P.  E.  Bach. 


law  and  philosophy  at  Leipzig,  he  finally  decided  to  give 
rein  to  his  natural  bent  toward  the  musical  profession.  Con- 
ducting and  composing  for  a  musical  society  at  Frankfort, 
he  was  appointed  first  clavier  player  at  the  court  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  at  Berlin,  where  he  stayed  from  1740  to 
1767,  in  high  favor  on  account  of  his  sterling  musicianship, 
and  enjoying  the  society  of  many  distinguished  musicians 
of  the  day.  In  1767,  he  became  musical  director  of  the 
principal  church  in  Hamburg,  where  he  remained  till  his 


2iSO  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

death,  in  1788.  A  vigorous  worker  throughout  his  life,  he 
left  a  large  number  of  compositions,  including  two  hundred 
and  ten  clavier  pieces  and  fifty-two  concertos  for  clavier 
and  orchestra,  besides  much  chamber  music,  eighteen  sym- 
phonies, oratorios  and  cantatas. 

C.  P.  E.  Bach's  Sonatas. — His  most  enduring  and  impor- 
tant work  was  in  connection  with  the  pianoforte  sonata, 
since  under  his  hands  it  began  to  assume  definite  shape.  In 
the  six  sets  of  sonatas  published,  the  number  of  movements 
is  generally  fixed  at  three,  of  which  the  third  is  frequently 
in  the  harmonic  form  of  the  Rondo,  which  consists  in  the 
recurrence  of  a  principal  theme,  with  modulatory  episodes 
between  its  appearances.  Hence  the  order  of  movements, 
which,  in  the  earlier  writers,  took  all  sorts  of  forms  from 
fugue  to  dance  form,  becomes  Allegro,  Adagio,  Rondo. 
Bach's  themes  are  also  made  very  characteristic,  founded 
upon  some  easily-recognized  instrumental  figure.  In  the 
development  portion  of  the  sonata  form  he  does  not  resort 
to  the  polyphonic  style,  but  uses  phrases  or  sections  from 
the  first  part  in  new  combinations  and  keys.  Sometimes, 
also,  the  direction  is  given  in  the  repeat  of  the  first  sec- 
tion, to  introduce  variations  of  the  text  at  will. 

His  Theoretical  Works. — Bach  published  at  Berlin,  in 
1753,  an  essay  on  "The  True  Method  of  Playing  the  Cla- 
vier," in  which  he  gives  a  definite  exposition  of  his  father's 
reforms  in  playing,  treating  the  position  of  the  hand,  em- 
bellishments and  artistic  rendering,  which  he  says  should 
touch  the  hearts  of  the  hearers.  A  second  part,  published 
in  1762,  discusses  the  science  of  accompaniment  and  im- 
provisation. 

Adoption  of  the  Piano. — The  clavichord,  notwithstand- 
ing its  feeble  tone,  remained  his  favorite  instrument  on  ac- 
count of  its  powers  of  expression,  in  which  he  delighted. 
His  brother,  Johann  Christian,  was  one  of  the  first  definitely 
to  adopt  the  new  pianoforte.  J.  G.  Miithel  published  in 
1 77 1  what  were  probably  the  first  compositions  mentioning 
the  pianoforte  for  their  performance,  a  duet  for  two  piano- 
fortes or  harpsichords;    after  the  time  of  C.  P.  E.  Bach, 


LESSON    HELPS.  28 1 

clavier  compositions  were  written   in  general   distinctively 
for  the  pianoforte  and  not  for  the  clavier. 
References. 

Weitzmann. — History  of  Pianoforte  Playing-. 

Shedlock. — The  Pianoforte  Sonata. 

Grove.  —  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  article 
"Sonata." 

Parry's  "Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,"  Chapter  IX. 

Henderson. — How  Music  Developed,  Chapter  X. 
Musical  Illustrations. 

Weitzmann,  pages  338,  340,  342-355- 
Rimbault. — ^"The  Pianoforte,"  pages  357-368. 
Edition  Litollf,  Augener,  Breitkopf,  as  for  Chapter  IV. 
Works  of  C.  P.  E.  Bach,  in  Peters'  edition. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

What  forms  of  composition  were  being  worked  out  while 
the  polyphonic  style  was  reaching  a  culmination? 

What  style  had  been  most  prominent  in  the  early  sonata? 

What  points  had  been  agreed  upon  as  necessary  in  the 
construction  of  the  sonata? 

What  changes  were  made  from  the  simple  dance  form  ? 

In  what  part  of  the  sonata  did  the  greatest  change  occur .'' 

What  was  the  course  of  development  in  sonata  form  up 
to  Haydn? 

Tell  about  Kuhnau  and  his  work. 

Tell  about  other  early  composers. 

Tell  about  Wilhelm  Friedemann  Bach. 

Tell  about  Johann  Christoph  Bach. 

Tell  about  Carl  Philip  Emanuel  Bach. 

Tell  about  Carl  Philip  Emanuel  Bach's  contribution  to 
the  development  of  the  sonata. 

What  other  works  did  C.  P.  E.  Bach  write  ? 

A  comparison  of  the  dates  from  Kuhnau's  published  work 
in  Sonatas  to  that  of  C.  P.  E.  Bach,  the  immediate  predeces- 
sor and  model  for  Haydn,  shows  that  the  form  took  definite 
shape  in  the  course  of  about  fifty  years. 


Fbanz  Joseph  Haydn. 


LESSON  XXX. 

Franz  Joseph  Haydn. 

The  Three  Great  Sonata  Writers. — In  the  year  of  C.  P.  E. 
Bach's  death,  1788,  three  men  had  already  entered  the 
arena  as  champions  of  that  Sonata  Form  to  which  he  con- 
tributed so  much.  Haydn  was  then  fifty-six,  Mozart  thirty- 
two  and  Beethoven  eighteen  years  of  age.  All  three  added 
to  the  glory  of  Vienna  by  making  it  their  dwelling-place 
in  their  later  years;  and  the  three  formed  a  triumvirate 
which  not  only  gave  to  the  Sonata  a  permanent  and  com- 
plete form,  but  also  brought  this  form  into  absolute  sub- 
servience to  the  expression  of  every  variety  of  emotional 
thought. 

Haydn's  Childhood. — Franz  Joseph  Haydn,  a  native  of 
Rohrau,  in  lower  Austria,  was  born  on  March  31,  1732,  the 
second  of  a  family  of  twelve  children.  His  father,  an 
humble  wheelwright,  was  accustomed  to  bring  his  family 
together  in  the  evenings  and  holidays,  as  was  the  German 
custom,  to  unite  in  song;  and  the  true  ear  and  feeling  for 
rhythm  of  Httle  "Sepperl,"  as  Joseph  was  called,  was  quickly 
noticeable.  So  a  cousin  of  his  father,  who  was  a  school- 
roaster  at  Hainburg,  was  allowed  to  take  the  boy  home 
with  him,  placing  him  in  the  school  choir,  and  directing 
his  studies,  which  included  singing,  and  the  playing  of  the 
violin  and  other  instruments. 

St.  Stephen's  Choir,  Vienna. — George  Reutter,  precentor 
of  St.  Stephen's  Cathedral,  at  Vienna,  paid  a  visit  to  the 
school  and  was  attracted  by  the  child's  "sweet,  weak  voice," 
as  he  expressed  it,  and  offered  him  a  position  in  his  choir. 
As  this  was  considered  a  rare  opportunity,  he  was  al- 
lowed to  go,  and  at  the  age  of  eight  we  find  him  installed 

(283) 


284  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

in  the  choir  school  at  Vienna,  attending  the  daily  service 
and  choir  practice,  besides  the  regular  school  studies.  But 
Reutter  seems  to  have  lost  his  personal  interest  in  the  lad, 
neglecting  him  in  various  ways,  doing  nothing  with  his  . 
work  in  musical  theory,  and  finally  dropping  all  his  tuition. 
Haydn  was  fond  of  mischief ;  and  when  his  voice  began 
to  break  and  his  brother  Michael  became  soloist  in  his 
place,  his  cruel  master  took  the  pretext  of  some  trifling 
prank  to  turn  him  adrift,  penniless,  into  the  street. 

Hardships  in  Vienna. — At  the  age  of  seventeen,  there- 
fore, he  wandered  the  streets  all  of  one  rainy  November 
night,  with  no  friend  to  whom  to  turn.  Finally,  in  the 
morning,  he  met  an  acquaintance  formerly  at  the  school, 
Spangler,  a  tenor  singer,  himself  nearly  as  poor  as  Haydn. 
Nevertheless,  he  took  the  outcast  home  to  his  garret,  where 
he  was  eking  out  an  existence  with  his  family ;  and  thus 
temporarily  provided  for,  Haydn  set  about  finding  work  to 
do.  Small  jobs,  like  playing  in  bands,  or  at  weddings  and 
baptisms,  and  singing  in  choirs,  he  eagerly  sought ;  his 
spare  moments  he  occupied  in  writing  music  for  serenades 
or  garden-parties.  While  undergoing  these  hardships,  how- 
ever, he  was  becoming  familiar  with  the  music  dear  to  the 
people's  heart,  and  also  with  the  varied  effects  of  instru- 
mental combinations. 

Studies  and  New  Friends. — In  1750,  he  rented  a  garret 
in  a  house  in  Vienna,  and,  having  secured  a  dilapidated 
spinet,  set  himself  diligently  to  work  to  study  all  available 
musical  compositions,  notably  those  of  the  new  sonata  order, 
and  especially  the  sonatas  of  C.  P.  E.  Bach.  Theoretical 
works,  also,  like  the  "Gradus  ad  Parnassum"  of  J.  J.  Fux,  i 
and  Mattheson's  work  on  conducting,  were  eagerly  de-  ' 
voured  by  the  youthful  enthusiast.  By  a  piece  of  good  for- 
tune, Metastasio,  the  popular  opera  librettist,  roomed  in 
the  same  house,  and  learning  of  the  talent  hidden  away  in 
the  garret,  sought  Haydn  out,  gave  him  Italian  lessons,  and 
ultimately  started  him  on  the  road  to  success  by  recommend- 
ing him  as  clavier  teacher  to  a  Spanish  lady,  to  whose 
daughter  he  gave  lessons. 


HAYDN.  285 

Connection  with  Porpora. — Her  singing-  master  was  the 
renowned  opera  composer,  Porpora,  who  recognized 
Haydn's  talent  as  accompanist,  and  proceeded  to  make  him 
useful  to  himself,  giving  him  instruction  in  composition  in 
return  for  his  services,  which  were  frequently  of  even  a 
menial  nature.  Accompanying  Porpora  on  his  journeys,  he 
met  musicians  like  Wagenseil  and  Gluck;  and  at  the  age 
of  twenty  had  written  many  compositions,  including  a  mass 
in  F,  an  opera  and  many  works  of  the  sonata  order,  founded 
on  the  style  of  C.  P.  E.  Bach. 

Better  Times. — Better  times  now  opened  before  Haydn. 
Gaining  influential  friends,  he  won,  through  them,  the  post 
of  music  director  and  composer  to  Count  Morzin,  a  position 
which  he  held  only  a  short  time,  since  the  Count  gave  u\) 
his  musical  establishment  soon.  But  he  was  immediatelv 
engaged  by  the  wealthy  and  cultivated  Prince  Paul  Ester- 
hazy,  who  had  been  charmed  at  hearing  a  symphony  of 
Haydn's,  as  assistant  director  of  music  at  his  estate  at 
Eisenstadt.  The  same  year  Haydn  made  an  unhappy  mar- 
riage with  the  daughter  of  Keller,  a  wigmaker,  which  he 
had  cause  to  regret  for  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

Orchestras  in  Germany. — To  understand  Haydn's  work 
with  the  Esterhazy  family,  it  will  be  necessary  to  review 
the  state  of  music  in  Germany  at  this  time.  When  the  or- 
chestral overtures  of  the  Italian  operas  had  become  used 
as  concert  pieces,  a  great  stimulus  was  given  to  this  kind 
of  music.  Concertos,  string  quartets,  trios,  and,  most  im- 
portant of  all,  symphonies,  came  to  be  written  in  great  num- 
bers; and  throughout  Germany  a  mania  for  orchestral 
music  arose.  Wealthy  families  vied  with  each  other  in  the 
size  and  prestige  of  their  musical  establishments,  which 
included  instrumentalists  and  vocalists ;  and  the  smaller 
gentry  even  pressed  their  domestic  servants  into  the  ser- 
vice, inducing  them  to  study  instruments,  and  to  perform 
string  quartets  and  the  like  on  occasions.  Inasmuch  as  a 
great  part  of  the  music  written  for  these  was  not  pub- 
lished, and  exchange  of  music  in  manuscript  between  dif- 
ferent establishments  was  attended  with  some  difficulty,  it 


286  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

was  necessary  that  the  music  director  should  have  the 
ability  to  write  his  own  music,  as  well  as  to  direct  it, 

Haydn's  Work  at  Esterhazy. — A  rare  opportunity  there- 
fore opened  to  Haydn,  with  his  exceptional  gifts  as  a  com- 
poser, when  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  an  establishment 
like  that  of  the  Esterhazy's,  which  was  perhaps  the  most 
brilliant  and  competent  in  Europe.  He  remained  in  active 
service  with  this  family  for  thirty-three  years,  during  which 
Prince  Nicolas  Esterhazy  succeeded  his  brother  Paul,  upon 
the  death  of  the  latter,  in  1762.  Nicolas,  called  the  "Great," 
on  account  of  his  love  of  magnificence  and  his  lavish  style 
of  living,  built  a  sumptuous  summer  palace  near  Siittor,  in 
Bohemia ;  and  here  he  spent  most  of  his  time,  with  his 
troup  of  retainers,  entertaining  royalty,  in  a  style  compar- 
able with  that  of  Versailles.  Werner,  his  head  director, 
who  had  never  appreciated  Haydn's  gifts  on  account  of  his 
old-school  principles,  died  in  1766,  and  Haydn,  who  had 
made  a  firm  friend  of  Prince  Nicolas,  was  given  his  place. 
The  orchestra  and  singers  were  now  entirely  under  his  com- 
mand; the  former  was  increased  from  the  original  number 
of  sixteen  to  thirty,  all  capable  performers;  so  that  his 
life  was  spent  in  a  round  of  rehearsals,  dramatic  perfor- 
mances and  concerts  for  the  numerous  entertainments  con- 
stantly in  progress.  Two  well-equipped  theatres,  one  for 
operas  and  dramas,  and  the  other  for  marionette  plays,  gave 
him  an  opportunity  for  adequate  performances;  he  thus 
had  an  exceptional  chance  to  study  the  eflFects  in  his  nu- 
merous quartets,  trios,  symphonies  and  operas,  at  first  hand. 

Journeys  to  Vienna. — On  several  occasions.  Prince  Nic- 
olas took  his  entire  troupe  of  musicians  to  Vienna,  where 
Haydn  conducted  the  performances,  meeting  also  the  dis- 
tinguished musicians  of  the  day.  It  was  on  one  of  these 
journeys,  in  1785,  that  he  met  Mozart,  whose  genius  he  was 
quick  to  appreciate,  and  who,  from  being  his  pupil,  finally 
gave  to  Haydn  the  added  inspiration  of  his  own  brilliant 
thoughts.  Haydn's  reputation  had  now  spread  abroad,  and 
his  compositions  were  eagerly  looked  for  throughout  tl  e 
musical  world. 


haydn's  importance.  287 

Haydn  in  London. — On  Prince  Nicolas'  death,  in  1790, 
Prince  Anton,  his  brother,  succeeded,  who,  however,  dis- 
missed the  orchestra,  providing  for  Haydn  by  a  liberal 
pension.  Haydn's  time  was  now  his  own ;  and  he  decided 
to  settle  in  Vienna;  but  an  English  impresario  and  pub- 
lisher named  Salomon  now  offered  him  such  exceptional  in- 
ducements to  come  to  London  that  he  accepted  the  offei. 
He  was  received  with  great  honor,  being  granted  the  de- 
gree of  Doctor  of  Music  from  Oxford  University.  He 
also  conducted  twelve  grand  symphonies,  especially  written 
for  this  visit,  which  were,  moreover,  some  of  his  finest 
productions.  On  a  second  visit,  in  1794-5,  he  excited  even 
greater  enthusiasm ;  and  he  returned  to  Vienna  supplied 
with  money  sufficient  to  insure  an  old  age  free  from  pecu- 
niary want.  Some  of  his  latest  works  were  the  Austrian 
National  Hymn,  and  his  oratorios  of  "The  Creation"  and 
"The  Seasons,"  which  immediately  attained  a  popularity 
that  has  even  yet  hardly  diminished. 

Honors. — Haydn,  in  his  old  age,  was  showered  with 
honors  both  at  home  and  abroad;  a  culminating  point  was 
reached  when,  on  his  seventy-sixth  birthday,  at  a  perfor- 
mance of  "The  Creation,"  his  friends,  including  many  rep- 
resentatives of  royalty,  united  to  do  him  honor.  His  genial, 
child-like  disposition  won  him  the  sobriquet  of  "Papa 
Haydn" ;  and  this  brightness  and  simplicity  of  thought  he 
so  transmitted  to  his  compositions  that  they  carry  his  at- 
mosphere of  sunshine  wherever  they  are  performed.  He 
died  in  Vienna,  soon  after  its  capture  by  the  French,  in  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  May  31,  1809. 

Importance  of  His  Work. — Haydn  has  been  called  the 
father  of  the  Symphony  and  the  String  Quartet.  In  neither 
case  is  this  strictly  true,  since  he  had  predecessors  in  both 
fields;  but  his  work  was  none  the  less  important,  since  he 
collected  the  scattered  threads  of  their  attempts,  and  wound 
them  into  a  concise  and  definite  art  form,  stamped  with 
the  hallmarks  of  his  own  genius.  The  seal  of  artistic  com- 
pleteness which  he  placed  on  the  form  of  the  Sonata  wai 
his  greatest  achievement;    and,  written  in  this  form,  his 


288  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

symphonies  and  quartets  were  simply  an  enlargement  of 
his  clavier  works,  the  symphonies  having  an  added  Alinuet 
movement  between  the  second  and  last  movements  of  the 
clavier  form  of  sonata,  thus  extending  the  piece  to  larger 
proportions. 

Sonata-Form  as  Fixed  by  Haydn. — In  these  clavier  sonatas, 
Haydn  fixed  the  form  which  had  been  the  subject  of  so 
many  experiments,  once  and  for  all.  The  number  of  move- 
ments with  him  is  almost  invariably  three,  of  which  the 
first,  at  least,  is  in  the  sonata-form.  This  consists  of  a 
first  section,  the  Exposition,  in  which  the  first  subject,  a  dis- 
tinct melody  having  the  Teutonic  individuality,  is  stated, 
defining  the  principal  key ;  and  a  second  subject,  more 
lengthy  and  diverse  in  character,  brings  on  a  close  in  the 
contrasting  key.  In  the  second  section,  or  Development, 
phrases  or  motives  from  the  first  section  are  cleverly  inter- 
twined in  modulating  keys,  with  running  scales  or  arpeg- 
gios as  connecting  links.  These,  however,  lead  naturally 
into  the  first  subject,  in  its  original  key,  which  opens  the 
third  section,  or  Reprise.  This  section  is  practically  like 
the  first,  save  that  the  second  subject  and  the  close  are 
transferred  into  the  principal  key,  in  which  the  movement 
ends. 

The  Second  Movement. — The  second,  or  slow  movement, 
is  cast  sometimes  in  the  same  form,  abbreviated,  and  some- 
times in  a  simpler  form.  The  lack  of  sustaining  power  in 
Haydn's  pianoforte,  and  his  attempt  to  atone  for  this  by 
trills  and  ornaments,  make  this  less  successful  than  the 
other  movements ;  a  residt  which  is  also  caused  by  the  fact 
that  intensity  and  depth  of  emotion  had  not  yet  been  de- 
veloped in  the  harmonic  school  of  music.  In  key,  this 
movement  was  contrasted  with  the  first,  sometimes  quite 
sharply,  as  in  one  of  the  sonatas  in  E-flat,  in  which  the  slow 
movement  is  in  E  major. 

Third  Movement.  —  The  lively  third  movement  is  fre- 
quently in  the  lighter  form  of  the  Rondo,  or  it  may  be  a 
set  of  Variations,  or  a  Minuet.  This  movement,  though 
sprightly,  is  apt  to  be  somewhat  thin  in  its  harmonies,  and 


FEATURES   OF    HAYDN'S    MUSIC.  289 

trivial  in  development.  Nevertheless,  these  last  two  move- 
ments show  an  expansion  of  the  forms  of  the  older  writers, 
and  a  definiteness  of  character  which  insured  their  future 
development. 

Definiteness  and  Unity. — This  element  of  absolute  definite- 
ness is  the  most  striking  feature  of  Haydn's  work — definite- 
ness none  the  less  in  the  general  form  than  in  each  indi- 
vidual component.  Each  part  of  each  section  ends  with  a 
cadence,  giving  it  absolute  finality,  and  making  the  whole  a 
combination  of  small  entities,  which,  though  distinct,  are 
yet  relevant  and  nicely  balanced. 

Humor  and  Freshness. — Another  quality  which  he  intro- 
duced was  that  of  humor,  which  is  prominent  not  only  in 
the  general  tone  of  geniality,  but  in  little  unexpected  twists 
of  harmony,  melody  or  rhythm,  which  give  an  irresistibly 
comic  effect.  Especially  is  this  true  in  his  symphonies, 
where  the  various  tone  colors  are  used  for  such  results. 
Especial  mention  should  also  be  made  of  his  Masses,  in 
which  tunefulness  of  melody  and  sprightly  rhythms  com- ' 
bine  to  give  an  enduring  popularity.  Altogether,  Haydn's 
work  is  redolent  of  the  spring  of  musical  activity,  where 
the  novelty  of  each  harmonic  effect  is  employed  with  an 
outburst  of  joy,  and  where  one  travels,  as  it  were,  through 
a  sunny  garden,  filled  with  the  flowers  of  musical  thoughts, 

References. 

Shedlock. — ^The  Pianoforte  Sonata. 

Naumann. — History  of  Music,  Vol.  H,  chapter  on  Haydn, 

Parry. — Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,  Chapter  XI. 

Weitzmann. — History  of  Pianoforte  Playing. 

Grove.  —  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  article 
"Haydn." 

Various  lives  of  Haydn. 

Haydn  appears  as  one  of  the  characters  in  George  Sand's 
musical  novel  "Consuelo." 

For  musical  illustrations,  see  especially  Haydn's  piano- 
forte sonatas,  in  Edition  Peters,  No.  713,  a,  b,  c  and  d,  o: 
in  other  cheap  editions. 


290  the  history  of  musig 

Questions. 

Who  are  the  three  great  sonata  writers? 

Tell  about  Haydn's  childhood. 

Tell  about  Haydn's  life  in  Vienna. 

Give  an  account  of  Haydn  as  a  student. 

What  great  singing  master  did  he  meet  ? 

What  patrons  did  Haydn  gain?  What  was  the  value  to 
the  musical  art  of  the  patronage  of  the  great  nobles  and 
princes  ? 

Describe  Haydn's  duties  and  opportunities  in  Prince  Es- 
terhazy's  service. 

What  great  composer  did  Haydn  meet  in  Vienna  in  1785? 

When  Haydn's  service  ceased,  to  what  city  did  he  go? 
What  works  did  he  bring  out  there  ? 

What  was  the  importance  of  his  work  to  the  Sonata  and 
the  Symphony? 

Describe  the  first  movement-form  as  fixed  by  Haydn. 

Describe  the  second  movement  as  fixed  by  Haydn. 

Describe  the  third  movement  as  fixed  by  Haydn. 

Name  certain  quaHties  characteristic  of  Haydn's  music. 

What  great  American  was  born  in  the  same  year  as 
Haydn? 

Name  men  and  women  of  prominence  who  were  contem- 
poraries of  Haydn. 


LESSON  XXXI. 

Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart. 

While  Haydn's  genius  was  shining  steadily  as  a  fixed 
star,  Mozart  flashed  across  the  musical  heaven,  meteorlike, 
throwing  a  flood  of  light  over  the  music  world.  The  knowl- 
edge which  others  spent  years  in  acquiring  seemed  his  by 
birthright;  and  thus,  although  the  years  of  his  life  were 
few,  the  period  of  his  artistic  activity  was  proportionately 
long. 

Mozart's  Early  Musical  Training. — Wolfgang  Amadeus 
Mozart  was  born  at  Salzburg,  January  27,  1756.  His  father, 
himself  of  some  reputation  as  a  composer  and  as  the  author 
of  the  first  German  violin  method,  was  quick  to  perceive 
the  child's  sensitiveness  toward  music;  and  began  instruc- 
tion in  clavier  playing  when  Wolfgang  was  but  four  years 
old,  teaching  also  his  daughter,  Maria  Anna,  five  years 
older.  Wolfgang  was  an  exceedingly  delicate  and  receptive 
child ;  and  at  the  age  of  six  he  had  not  only  acquired  re- 
markable proficiency  on  the  instrument,  but  had  composed 
a  number  of  little  pieces,  and  a  clavier  sonata. 

First  Concert  Tours. — Realizing  the  remarkable  talent  of 
his  children,  Mozart,  the  father,  in  1762,  ventured  on  a  con- 
cert trip  with  them  to  Munich,  and  later  to  Vienna,  where 
their  playing  became  the  sensation  of  the  hour,  and  where 
they  were  received  by  the  Emperor,  Franz  Josef  I,  at  his 
palace.  Having  been  presented  with  a  small  violin,  Mozart 
acquired  facility  in  its  technic  with  extraordinary  quickness, 
as  also  was  the  case  when  he  attempted  the  use  of  organ 
pedals.  The  brilliant  French  court  was  then  the  Mecca  of 
artists;  and  in  1763,  the  children  were  taken  to  Paris, 
where  their  successes  were  redoubled,  and  where  they  gave 
two  brilliant  concerts,  after  having  played  before  the  royal 

(291) 


292  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

family  at  Versailles.  At  Paris,  moreover,  the  opus  i  and 
opus  2  of  the  little  Mozart  were  published,  each  comprising 
two  sonatas  for  harpsichord,  with  accompaniment  of  violin 
or  flute. 

England.  —  Proceeding  now  to  England,  the  children 
won  fresh  laurels,  remaining  there  fifteen  months;  during 
which  time  Wolfgang  excited  the  admiration  of  the  king, 
George  III,  by  his  sight-reading  of  works  by  Handel,  Bach 
and  others.  He  also  wrote  other  sonatas,  and  his  first  sym- 
phonies. Returning  to  Salzburg,  after  a  three  years'  ab- 
sence, Mozart  applied  himself  to  serious  study,  composing 
his  first  oratorio  and  opera,  which  latter  was  not  performed 
in  public,  and  also  appearing  as  conductor  at  a  concert  in 
v/hich  his  "Solemn  Mass"  was  performed. 

Honors  in  Italy.  —  Renewed  triumphs  awaited  him  in 
Italy,  v/here  his  father  took  him  in  1769,  and  where  his 
genius  was  immediately  recognized  in  the  leading  cities. 
At  Rome  he  was  honored  by  the  Order  of  the  Golden  Spur, 
conferred  by  the  Pope ;  and  in  Bologna  was  admitted  to 
membership  in  the  exclusive  Philharmonic  Academy,  pass- 
ing with  ease  an  examination  wdiich  would  have  appalled 
many  mature  musicians;  in  Milan  his  opera  "Mitridate" 
was  received  enthusiastically,  and  given  twenty  consecu- 
tive performances,  under  his  own  direction. 

Journey  to  Paris. — Returning  to  Salzburg,  Mozart  took 
up  the  post  previously  given  him  of  music  director  to  the 
Archbishop ;  but  his  emolument,  at  first  wholly  wanting, 
was  insignificant,  and  the  Archbishop,  having  little  appre- 
ciation of  his  abilities,  proved  a  thankless  taskmaster.  Dur- 
ing this  time  he  made  several  journeys  to  Milan,  producing 
new  dramatic  works  there;  and  in  1777,  as  his  Salzburg 
position  had  become  intolerable,  he  resolved  to  give  it  up, 
and  to  repair  to  Paris.  Starting  on  this  journey  with  his 
mother,  he  stopped  at  Munich,  and  then  at  Augsburg,  where 
he  became  interested  in  the  Stein  pianofortes,  henceforth 
adopting  them  for  his  concert  work.  At  Mannheim  he 
heard  the  famous  orchestra,  of  which  Stamitz  was  the 
founder,   whose   command   of   instrumental   brilliancy   and 


Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozaet, 


294  "^HE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

color  made  so  powerful  an  impression  upon  him  that  he 
transmitted  it  to  his  succeeding  orchestral  compositions. 

"Idomeneo"  and  "II  Seraglio." — At  Paris,  he  found  so- 
ciety divided  into  two  warring  operatic  factions,  led  by 
Gluck  and  Piccini,  and  averse  to  anything  else  in  music. 
Saddened  also  by  the  death  of  his  mother,  he  returned  to 
Salzburg,  and  resumed  his  former  post  with  the  Arch- 
bishop. Receiving  an  order  to  write  an  opera  for  the  Car- 
nival at  Munich,  he  produced  his  "Idomeneo"  there  in  1781, 
Shortly  after,  he  was  compelled,  through  ill-treatment,  to 
break  finally  with  the  Archbishop,  and  he  resolved  to  settle 
in  Vienna.  In  the  same' year,  1782,  in  which  he  produced 
there  his  opera,  "Entfiihrung  aus  dem  Serail,"  composed 
by  command  of  the  Emperor,  he  married  Constance  Weber. 

Financial  Troubles. — His  life  from  this  time  was  a  con- 
stant struggle  against  poverty;  for  notwithstanding  his 
wonderful  genius,  he  received  only  scant  recognition  from 
his  patron,  the  Emperor,  although  loyal  to  him  to  the  end. 
His  existence  was  eked  out  chiefly  by  the  sale  of  his  com- 
positions, which  publishers  purchased  at  a  low  price,  by 
giving  lessons  and  by  playing  at  concerts;  while  the  jeal- 
ousy of  rivals  furnished  a  constant  source  of  annoyance. 

"Figaro,"  "Don  Giovanni"  and  Symphonies. — His  comic 
opera,  "The  Marriage  of  Figaro,"  produced  in  Vienna  in 
1786,  came  near  failing  through  these  enemies,  but  was  an 
unqualified  success  in  Prague,  where,  in  the  following  year, 
h\3  masterpiece,  "Don  Giovanni,"  was  produced.  On  a 
concert  tour  in  1786  he  was  offered  an  excellent  post  in  the 
service  of  King  Frederic  Wilhelm  H,  of  Prussia,  which  he 
refused,  through  loyalty  to  his  Emperor — a  devotion  which 
received  no  reward  save  an  order  to  write  another  opera. 
In  the  same  year,  1789,  his  three  most  important  symphonies 
were  completed — the  "Jupiter,"  in  C,  and  those  in  G  minor 
and  E-flat  major. 

Other  Operas — Death. — His  succeeding  operas  were  "Cosi 
fan  Tutte,"  performed  at  Vienna  in  1790;  "The  Clemency 
of  Titus,"  given  at  Prague  in  1791,  for  the  coronation  fes- 
tivities of  King  Leopold  II  of  Bohemia,  and  "The  Magic 


MOZART   AS    PIANO   VIRTUOSO.  295 

Flute,"  produced  at  Vienna  in  1791,  which,  through  its 
German  subject  and  style,  was  a  signal  success,  especially 
in  his  own  country.  Discouragements  and  hard  work  now 
told  upon  him ;  and  in  the  midst  of  his  labors  upon  a  grand 
Requiem,  he  was  stricken  down,  and  died  December  5,  1791. 

Relations  with  Haydn. — No  one  admired  Mozart's  genius 
more  than  Haydn;  and  a  proof  of  the  latter's  freedom 
from  the  petty  jealousies  of  lesser  men  is  found  in  the  fact 
that,  while  he  was  at  first  Mozart's  teacher,  he  was  after- 
ward glad  to  adopt  many  of  the  innovations  which  were 
the  result  of  Mozart's  genius.  The  labors  of  the  two  men 
admirably  supplemented  each  other ;  for  Mozart  assimilated 
and  blended  what  Haydn  had  definitely  stated,  adorning 
the  rugged  outlines  with  the  graceful  draperies  which  his 
skill  as  a  performer  and  his  artistic  nature  dictated. 

Italian  Influences. — Thus,  while  Mozart  adopted  the  form 
of  the  Sonata  practically  as  enunciated  by  Haydn,  he  was 
able  to  impart  new  elements  to  it,  drawn  from  his  own  ex- 
perience and  individuality.  His  Italian  journeys,  for  in- 
stance, had  brought  him  into  close  touch  with  the  highly- 
adorned  Italian  opera  style,  then  everywhere  popular;  and 
this  he  introduced  into  his  instrumental  themes,  making 
them  at  once  singing  and  graceful  in  tone.  In  the  Sonata 
Form,  he  made  the  second  theme  more  definite,  contrasting 
it  with  the  first,  and  frequently  casting  it  in  the  form  of 
an  Italian  style  of  melody,  in  distinction  from  a  more  terse 
and  thematic  principal  subject. 

Mozart  as  Piano  Virtuoso. — As  a  virtuoso,  Mozart  im- 
mensely developed  the  resources  of  the  piano.  After  the 
Bachs,  J.  S.  and  his  son  C.  P.  E.,  had  established  a  rational 
scale  fingering,  and  it  was  found  possible  to  introduce  pas- 
sages at  once  quickly  running  and  smooth  upon  the  clavier, 
such  scale  passages  became  very  frequent  in  the  composi- 
tions of  the  time,  and  they  were,  moreover,  well  adapted 
to  the  light  Viennese  action  found  in  the  Stein  pianos, 
which  Mozart  used.  Hence  we  find  scale-runs  as  the  corner- 
stone of  his  virtuosity,  constantly  employed  in  florid  and 
transitional  passages. 


296  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Classic  Finish. — But  Mozart's  compositions  were  nol 
simply  an  advance  in  brilliancy,  since  his  slow  movements 
and  themes  are  full  of  much  genuine  sentiment,  and  give 
opportunity  for  that  expressive  song-style  which  he  em- 
phasized so  strongly.  Moreover,  his  feeling  for  artistic 
finish  caused  him,  by  rounding  off  every  detail,  to  avoid 
abruptness,  replacing  them  by  little  delicate  turns  of  musical 
expression  and  graceful  embellishments,  which  give  an 
atmosphere  of  classic  repose  and  finish  to  the  whole. 

Variations. — Embellishments  of  this  kind  are  introduced 
invariably  with  such  naturalness  and  fitness  as  to  make  them 
seem  perfectly  adapted  to  the  subject  in  hand,  and  growing 
unconsciously  out  of  it.  So  Mozart  throws  a  network  of 
embroidery  about  his  themes  at  their  recurrence  which  shows 
their  beauties  to  ever  greater  advantage.  The  ability  to 
do  this  makes  him  a  specially  felicitous  composer  in  the 
Variation  form,  in  which  some  of  his  most  attractive  move- 
ments and  salon  pieces  are  written. 

Piano  with  Other  Instruments. — His  sense  of  fitness  is 
shown  also  in  the  vivid  contrasts  which  occur,  especially  in 
his  Fantasias,  in  which  brilliant  passages  are  relieved  by 
bits  of  exquisite  melody,  in  artistic  proportion.  All  these 
qualities  are  manifested  in  his  pianoforte  concertos,  which, 
while  replete  with  flights  of  virtuosity,  yet  always  sub- 
ordinate, cause  him  to  bring  this  into  equal  prominence 
with  the  piano,  so  that  the  one  ably  seconds  the  other 
in  the  attempt  to  produce  a  well-rounded  and  thoroughly 
genuine  musical  effect.  The  same  qualities  are  exhibited 
in  his  sonatas  for  violin  and  piano,  and  in  his  piano  trios. 
\  Especial  Characteristics. — Mozart  considered  three  ele- 
ments necessary  for  the  true  interpretation  of  piano  music 
namely,  an  expressive  legato  touch,  moderation  in  the  rate 
of  speed  of  performance,  and  strictness  in  adhering  to  the 
time  adopted.  With  an  unfeeling  touch  or  a  breakneck 
velocity  he  had  no  patience,  and  so  had  no  sympathy  with 
many  noted  pianists  of  his  day,  and  notably  Clementi.  It 
has  been  said  that  Mozart,  almost  from  his  infancy,  thought 
in  music  as  others  do  in  words ;   and  this  thought  in  music 


LESSON    HELPS.  297 

was  regulated  by  a  sense  of  artistic  combination  and  pro- 
portion which  permeated  all  his  works.  As  samples  of  vir- 
tuosity his  piano  works  have  long  been  surpassed  by  the 
astonishing  developments  since  his  time,  and  particularly 
by  the  added  resources  of  the  instrument  itself;  but  as 
samples  of  pure  and  unaffected  music  their  worth  can  never 
be  diminished. 

References. 
Shedlock. — The  Pianoforte  Sonata. 
Parry. — Evolution  of  thfi  Art  of  Music,  Chapter  XI. 
Naumann. — History  of  Music,  Vol.  II,  Chapter  XXX. 
Weitzmann. — History  of  Pianoforte  Playing. 
Jahn. — Life  of  Mozart. 
Articles  in  Grove's  Dictionary  on  subjects  treated, 

Mu.siCAL  Illustrations. 
Works  of  Mozart,  especially  the  Sonatas. 

Questions. 

Give  a  sketch  of  Mozart's  childhood. 

Give  an  account  of  Mozart's  first  concert  tour. 

Tell  about  the  first  trip  to  Italy. 

What  drawbacks  did  he  suffer  from  his  connection  with 
the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg? 

Where  did  he  come  into  contact  with  the  piano?  With  a 
first-class  orchestra? 

Why  was  his  life  full  of  financial  trouble? 

Summarize  his  work  in  opera. 

What  additions  did  Mozart  make  to  the  form  of  the 
sonata  as  developed  by  Haydn? 

Give  an  account  of  Mozart's  work  as  a  virtuoso. 

What  qualities  besides  brilliancy  are  shown  in  his  works? 

In  what  form  are  some  of  his  most  delightful  pieces 
written  ? 

Tell  about  Mozart's  compositions  for  orchestra. 

What  three  elements  did  Mozart  consider  necessary  for 
the  interpretation  of  piano  music? 


LuDwiQ  VAN  Beethoven. 


LESSON  XXXIl. 

LuDWiG  VAN  Beethoven. 

Formalism  of  Haydn  and  Mozart. — It  has  been  seen  that 
the  forms  of  harmonic  music,  growing  out  of  numerous 
and  sometimes  crude  experiments,  were  brought  to  a  high 
state  of  perfection  through  the  genius  of  Haydn  and  Mo- 
zart ;  and  that  they  left  a  definite  structure,  nicely  balanced, 
capable  of  expressing  deftnite  thoughts  in  a  unified  form, 
and  at  the  same  time  of  allowing  free  rein  to  the  com- 
poser's fancy.  Of  their  instrumental  works,  the  definition 
of  the  musician-philosopher  J.  J.  Rousseau  (d.  1778),  that 
"music  is  the  art  of  combining  sounds  in  a  manner  agree- 
able to  the  ear,"  gave  a  fitting  characterization ;  for  while 
a  tinge  of  melancholy  is  occasionally  perceptible,  and  there 
are  passages  of  some  dramatic  intensity,  nevertheless  such 
elements  are  introduced  mainly  to  give  a  pleasing  con- 
trast from  the  even  flow  of  polished  and  idealized  sound. 

Their  Gift  to  Beethoven. — In  other  words,  neither  Haydn 
nor  Mozart  ever  sacrifices  his  sense  of  artistic  finish  to  the 
expression  of  the  heights  and  depths  of  human  emotion. 
Putting  the  seal  of  genius  upon  instrumental  forms,  they 
transmitted  these  forms  to  another  more  colossal  mind, 
which  should  make  use  of  them,  to  be  sure,  but  should  ab- 
solutely subordinate  them  to  the  expression  of  the  burning 
thoughts  and  passions  of  a  great  individuality;  a  mind 
which,  like  that  of  Shakespeare,  was  able  to  look  fearlessly 
upon  universal  truths,  and  to  bring  these  to  the  light,  in 
this  instance  through  the  medium  of  tone.  While  their 
predecessors,  by  unwearying  attempts,  made  possible  this 
determination  of  a  capable  art  form,  so  Haydn  and  Mozart, 

(299) 


30O  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

in  their  turn,  paved  the  way  for  the  fuller  expression  which 
Beethoven  gave  to  music,  and  which  would  otherwise  not 
have  heen  possible,  since  the  vehicle  for  his  thouglits  would 
have  been  wanting.  Thus  the  opportunity  had  arrived  for 
broadening  the  definition  which  Rousseau  gave,  and  an- 
nouncing the  fact  that  music  is  the  art  of  the  expression  of 
every  emotion,  whether  pleasurable  or  painful,  through  the 
medium  of  highly  organized  sound. 

Beethoven's  Early  Life. — Ludwig  van  Beethoven,  the  last 
and  greatest  of  this  triumvirate  of  sonata  writers,  was  a 
native  of  Bonn-on-the-Rhine,  where  he  was  born  Decem- 
ber i6,  1770.  His  parents  were  lowly  people,  his  father 
a  tenor  singer  in  the  Elector  of  Cologne's  chapel,  and  his 
mother  a  cook;  and,  moreover,  Beethoven's  early  life  was 
an  unhappy  one,  through  his  father's  irascible  disposition 
and  tendency  toward  dissipation.  Beethoven,  of  an  acutely 
sensitive  nature,  inherited  his  father's  quick  temper  and 
annoyances  at  trifles,  so  that  all  through  his  troubled  life 
he  was  constantly  in  a  state  of  irritation  agamst  something 
or  someone.  Like  Mozart,  he  showed  early  and  unmis- 
takable signs  of  a  musical  susceptibility ;  unlike  him,  how- 
ever, the  unfolding  of  his  genius  was  ultimately  slow,  since 
he  attained  to  his  greatest  powers  much  later  in  life  than 
his  phenomenal  predecessor.  His  early  instruction  was  be- 
gun with  his  father;  but  soon  he  was  placed  in  the  care  of 
several  local  musicians:  Pfeiffer,  music  director  and  c^joist; 
Van  der  Eeden,  the  court  organist ;  and  especially  the  suc- 
cessor to  the  latter,  Neefe  (1748-1798),  a  man  of  "eputa- 
tion  as  organist  and  composer  for  the  pianoforte  As  a 
result,  Beethoven  played  the  violin  w^ll  at  eight,  •ind  at 
twelve  had  mastered  the  works  of  Kundel  and  the  "Well- 
Tempered  Clavichord"  of  J.  S.  Bach.  This  intim?*c  study 
of  the  best  works  of  the  old  polyphonic  school  was  of 
great  advantage  later  in  solidif;/ing  his  gifts  as  a  musician. 

First  Compositions. — In  1782,  were  published  hi  :  first  at- 
tempts at  composition — a  set  of  variations,  and  three 
sonatas ;  and  these,  together  with  his  remarkafc'e  extem- 
pore playing,  began  to  attract  the  attention  of  persons  of 


BEETHOVEN  S    EARLY    LIFE.  3OI 

influence.  He  was  appointed  organist  at  Bonn,  and  at  six- 
teen was  sent  by  the  Elector  Max  Franz,  brother  of  the 
Emperor  Joseph  II,  to  Vienna,  where  he  received  praise 
from  Mozart,  who  predicted  a  brilHant  future  for  him. 

The  Breuning  Family. — In  1787,  his  mother  died;  and 
this  loss,  together  with  his  father's  intemperate  habits, 
made  his  home  extremely  unpleasant.  Fortunately  for 
Beethoven,  however,  the  enthusiasm  for  music  which  was 
rife  in  Germany  at  this  time  among  people  of  culture  and 
position  was  the  cause  of  attracting  to  his  side  many  true 
friends,  who,  appreciating  his  sterling  qualities,  were  able 
to  pardon  his  rough  exterior  and  manners.  Thus  he  was 
received  as  teacher  and  friend  into  the  home  of  the  cul- 
tivated von  Breuning  family,  under  whose  refining  influence 
he  came  into  touch  with  the  masterpieces  of  English  and 
German  literature.  Here  he  first  met  his  staunch  friend. 
Count  Waldstein ;  and  here  he  had  leisure  for  long  walks 
amid  the  rural  retreats  which  he  heartily  loved,  and  for 
meditation  upon  those  musical  ideas  which  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  jot  down  in  rough  sketches,  and  which  should 
later  be  translated  into  his  immortal  creations. 

In  Vienna.  —  Haydn,  passing  through  Bonn,  warmly 
praised  a  cantata  of  Beethoven's ;  and  the  Elector,  moved 
by  such  marks  of  approbation,  sent  him  again  to  Vienna, 
in  1792,  for  serious  study.  Here  he  was  instructed  by  Haydn 
till  the  latter's  departure  for  England,  in  1794,  when  he  went 
to  Albrechtsberger,  the  celebrated  contrapuntist,  and  others ; 
but  these  exponents  of  an  earlier  school  looked  somewhat 
askance  at  the  bold  innovations  which  Beethoven  introduced 
into  recognized  principles,  and  failed  to  understand  the  ir- 
repressible genius  which  prompted  them.  Nothing  daunted, 
he  launched  zealously  into  composition,  supported  by  a 
growing  circle  of  admirers  to  which  the  Elector's  patronage 
had  introduced  him ;  and  soon  became  a  favorite  at  the 
private  soirees  of  the  nobility,  where,  on  account  of  his 
eccentric  manners,  he  was  known  as  an  "original,"  but 
where  his  wonderful  extemporizing  was  received  with 
ecstasy. 


302  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Successes  as  a  Pianist. — Beethoven's  first  public  perfor- 
mance in  Vienna  occurred  in  1795,  when  he  performed  his 
pianoforte  concerto  in  C  major  at  a  concert.  During  a 
journey  soon  after,  he  played  before  King  Friedrich  Wil- 
helm  II,  at  Berlin,  who  distinguished  him  with  marks  of 
favor,  and  to  whom  Beethoven  dedicated  two  sonatas  writ- 
ten for  pianoforte  with  'cello.  Here  also  he  met  the  con- 
ductor, Friedrich  Himmel  (1765-1814),  a  pianist  and  com- 
poser of  high  rank.  We  hear  next  of  his  trial  of  pianistic 
skill  with  Steibelt,  a  popular  virtuoso,  in  which  Beethoven 
won  an  overwhelming  victory.  With  Wolfl,  another  dis- 
tinguished rival,  his  relations  were  those  of  mutual  esteem, 
and  the  two  masters  delighted  to  extemporize  dashing 
capriccios  on  two  pianofortes. 

First  Period. — The  thirteen  years,  from  1790  to  1803,  are 
usually  considered  to  embrace  his  first  period  of  activity 
as  a  composer,  comprising  his  works  to  opus  50.  His  opus 
I,  three  trios  for  piano,  violin  and  'cello,  appeared  in  1795, 
and  soon  after  three  piano  sonatas,  opus  2,  dedicated  to 
Haydn,  were  published.  Among  the  other  noteworthy 
works  of  this  period  were  his  first  two  symphonies,  in  C 
and  D,  three  piano  concertos,  the  piano  sonatas  including 
opus  2^,  the  Kreutzer  sonata  for  piano  and  violin,  and  his 
famous  Septet  for  strings  and  wind  instruments.  In  gen- 
eral, these  compositions  follow  closely  the  lines  laid  down 
by  Haydn  and  Mozart,  although  there  is,  notably  in  the 
piano  sonatas,  a  gradual  tendency  toward  freedom  of  ex- 
pression, and  the  assertion  of  individuality. 

Troubles  now  began  to  gather  about  him.  About  1800 
his  hearing  became  defective,  and  the  malady  grew  steadily 
from  bad  to  worse,  so  that  by  1816  he  was  obliged  to  use 
an  ear-trumpet,  and  by  1822  he  was  stone-deaf.  To  add 
to  his  discomforts,  his  brothers  Karl  and  Johann  treated 
him  shamefully,  and  a  son  of  the  former,  to  whom  he  was 
left  guardian  at  the  father's  death,  and  upon  whom  he 
lavished  a  father's  care,  turned  out  a  scapegrace,  repaying 
his  aflFection  with  the  basest  ingratitude.  Weighed  down  b> 
these  misfortunes,  Beethoven  became  irritable  and  morbid, 


COMPOSITIONS   OF   THE    SECOND    PERIOD.  303 

distrusting  his  most  faithful  friends,  and  constantly  imagin- 
ing' plots  against  himself.  His  utter  ignorance  of  worldly 
matters,  too,  brought  him  into  financial  troubles,  and  in- 
volved his  domestic  affairs  in  a  state  of  continual  confusion. 

Second  Period. — Yet,  as  if  to  prove  man's  ability  to  rise 
superior  to  every  affliction,  during  this  very  time  he  was 
writing  compositions  which,  for  joyous  freshness  and  spir- 
itual elevation,  have  been  scarcely,  if  ever,  equalled.  Dur- 
ing his  second  period,  extending  to  1815,  and  including 
his  compositions  to  about  opus  90,  he  adopted  a  freedom 
of  expression  entirely  untrammelled  by  formal  limitations, 
enlarging  and  vivifying  the  Sonata  Form,  and  varying  it 
to  suit  his  changing  moods.  The  joy  of  living,  with  its 
intensity  of  passion  and  depths  of  emotion,  is  reflected  in 
these  works,  which  assert  a  character  strong  in  its  struggle 
against  adverse  fate,  confidently  looking  toward  the  goal 
of  ultimate  good. 

Compositions  of  this  Period. — His  most  popular  sym- 
phonies were  written  during  this  period,  which  embraces 
those  from  the  third  to  the  eighth,  inclusive.  The  "Eroica," 
number  three,  was  originally  written  in  homage  to  Napo- 
leon, whom  Beethoven  honored  as  the  guide  of  the  French 
nation  toward  that  assertion  of  independence  and  individ- 
uality which  he  dearly  loved ;  but  when  the  news  arrived 
that  Napoleon  was  declared  Dictator,  in  1804,  he  tore  up 
the  dedicatory  page  in  a  fit  of  anger.  Another  of  his  great- 
est compositions  was  his  opera  of  "Fidelio,"  upon  which 
Beethoven  spent  an  amazing  amount  of  time  and  pains, 
whose  overture  he  rewrote  twice.  Produced  in  Vienna,  in 
1805,  soon  after  the  occupation  of  the  city  by  the  French, 
it  was  received  coldly;  and  only  after  several  revisions  did 
it  score  a  success  at  all  in  keeping  with  its  grand  and  in- 
spiring conception.  Several  orchestral  overtures;  his 
violin  concerto;  an  oratorio;  a  mass  in  C;  some  of  his 
best  chamber  music,  including  the  celebrated  Rasumovsky 
string  quartets ;  and  his  piano  concertos  in  G  and  E-flat, 
were  other  fruits  of  about  this  time.  Of  fourteen  piano 
sonatas,  we  find  several  which  have  continued  in  unbroken 


304  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

popularity,  notably  the  two  in  opus  27,  the  "Pastorale," 
opus  28,  the  "Waldstein,"  opus  53,  and  the  "Appassionata." 

latter  Years  of  His  Life.— The  latter  part  of  Beethoven's 
life,  after  181 5,  was  spent  in  Vienna,  in  a  state  of  despon- 
dency from  his  troubles  which  his  general  recognition  as 
the  foremost  musician  of  his  day  could  scarcely  alleviate. 
His  many  friends  placed  him,  by  their  efforts,  in  comfor- 
table pecuniary  circumstances ;  yet  he  constantly  imagined 
himself  struggling  with  poverty.  Sensitive  to  his  afflic- 
tion, he  made  himself  exceedingly  inaccessible,  and  passed 
his  days  in  unceasing  labor  upon  those  works  which  eclipsed, 
in  profundity  and  individuality,  all  of  his  former  composi- 
tions, and  which  were  an  index  to  the  conflicting  struggles 
in  his  mind.  Stone-deaf,  he  yet  revelled  in  a  spiritual  world 
of  tone,  hearing  his  greatest  compositions  only  in  the  realms 
of  his  imagination.  An  attack  of  pneumonia  in  1826  left 
effects  which  proved  lasting,  and  which  caused  his  death 
on  March  26,  1827.  In  his  last  illness  he  was  surrounded 
by  his  circle  of  unfailing*  friends,  among  whom  the  modest 
Schubert  was  admitted ;  and  a  proof  of  his  hold  upon  his 
countrymen  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  20,000  persons  are 
said  to  have  attended  his  funeral. 

Last  Great  Works. — The  greatest  fruit  of  these  later  years 
was  his  last  symphony,  the  Ninth,  or  "Choral,"  in  which, 
for  the  first  time,  he  introduced  voices  as  an  aid  to  the 
instrumental  climax.  The  free  vent  which  he  gave  to  his 
radical  tendencies  in  this  symphony,  its  unheard-of  bold- 
ness of  harmonic  progressions,  and  its  defiance  of  all  con- 
ventional rules,  aroused  a  storm  of  protest  from  his  critics 
which  was  only  lulled  after  succeeding  generations  had 
placed  the  stamp  of  unmistakable  approval  upon  the  work, 
and  had  recognized  it  as  a  monument  of  genius.  Near  to 
this  in  importance  stands  his  "Solemn  Mass"  in  D,  a  work 
imbued  with  all  the  religious  fervor  of  his  declining  years. 

Sonatas  of  Third  Period. — Other  notable  achievements,  in 
the  line  of  chamber  music,  mark  this  period;  and  the  last 
five  piano  sonatas,  extending  from  opus  loi  to  opus  iii, 
exhibit  the  same  undaunted  freedom  that  is  found  in  the 


PERSONALITY   OF   BEETHOVEN.  305 

Ninth  symphony.  Enormous  in  their  demands  upon  the 
pianist,  they  are  food  for  none  but  virtuosi ;  but  analyzed, 
they  show  a  compendium  of  all  known  musical  resources, 
from  the  choral  fugue  to  the  most  daring  flights  of  har- 
monic expression. 

Beethoven's  Dual  Personality.  —  Beethoven  furnishes  an 
example  of  a  personality  whose  dual  nature  is  remarkably 
apparent.  Often  unkempt,  and  rude  in  his  outward  bear- 
ing, he  seemed  at  times  absolutely  oblivious  to  his  sur- 
roundings and  to  chafe  at  his  bodily  limitations ;  yet  his 
apparent  rudeness  toward  his  friends  was  as  often  humbly 
atoned  for  by  his  confession  of  his  haste  in  judging  them. 
His  independence  of  spirit  could  brook  no  submission  to 
authority  other  than  his  own  conscience ;  and  that  con- 
science prompted  him  to  stand  firm  in  support  of  the  gen- 
uine, the  pure  and  the  ideal ;  firm,  thus,  in  us  abhorrence 
of  artificiality  and  deceit.  In  his  ignorance  of  worldly  wiles 
he  was  on  a  par  with  a  little  child  ;  finding  his  true  sphere 
when  buried  in  the  lofty  problems  of  his  art,  giving  to  the 
world  the  fruits  of  his  innermost  spirit,  which  were  ever 
animated  by  nobility  and  truth  of  expression. 

Beethoven  Stood  Alone. — Detesting  the  fetters  of  teach- 
ing work,  he  left  few  pupils.  Among  these  Ferdinand  Ries 
(1784-1838)  enjoyed  an  intimate  association  with  him,  and 
afterwards  became  prominent  as  piano  virtuoso  and  com- 
poser. With  the  great  men  of  his  day  he  affiliated  but  little. 
Goethe  (1749-1832)  he  met  but  once,  on  one  of  his  jour- 
neys ;  but  the  meeting  had  no  further  results.  Like  other 
great  minds,  his  original  ideas  had  to  make  their  way  amid 
ai  shower  of  abuse  from  more  conventional  contemporaries, 
who  lauded  as  his  equal  or  superior  others  whose  works 
have  long  since  passed  into  oblivion ;  but,  fortunate  in  find- 
ing staunch  defenders,  he  made  steady  progress  against  his 
enemies,  until  his  position  in  the  music  world  became  unique 
und  unassailable. 


306  the  history  of  music. 

Questions. 

What  did  Haydn  and  Mozart  give  to  Beethoven? 

Give  a  sketch  of  Beethoven's  early  Hfe. 

What  works  did  he  particularly  study  ? 

What  were  his  first  compositions? 

What  intimate  friends  did  he  make  in  early  life? 

What  city  did  he  select  as  his  home? 

What  years  embrace  his  first  period? 

What  are  the  leading  works  of  this  period? 

What  affliction  developed  in  1800? 

What  years  compose  the  second  period? 

What  changes  came  into  his  style? 

Name  the  leading  works  of  the  second  period. 

Tell   about    Beethoven's    later   life,    from    18 15    or. 

What  are  the  leading  works  of  this  last  period? 

Describe  the  personality  of  Beethoven. 


LESSON  XXXIIl. 

Beethoven  and  the  Sonata. 

Bach  and  Beethoven  Contrasted. — We  now  consider  the 
exact  nature  of  the  work  which  Beethoven  did,  in  distinc- 
tion from  that  of  Haydn  and  Mozart.  It  has  been  said 
that  Bach  gave  the  Old  Testament  in  music,  while  Beethoven 
gave  the  New ;  that  is,  that  Bach  consummated  the  old  poly- 
phomi.  school,  while  Beethoven  did  an  equal  work  for  the 
new  harrhonic  school.  Yet  this  is  only  a  half  truth ;  for 
Bach,  besides  perfecting  former  styles,  gave  glimpses  of 
modern  chromatic  modulation  and  free  expression ;  while 
Beethoven,  a  student  of  the  old  masters,  employed  poly- 
phonic forms  as  well  as  harmonic,  making  all  work  together 
to  translate  his  thought,  and  so  moulding  them  into  a  means 
of  portraying  every  emotion  as  to  open  the  door  forever  to 
the  untrammelled  presentment  of  thought,  through  the 
medium  of  music. 

Beethoven's  Gradual  Development.  —  But  Beethoven  did 
not  arrive  at  this  result  in  an  instant.  It  is  true  that,  even 
in  his  early  works,  a  distinction  of  style  is  shown  which 
removes  them  from  a  mere  imitation,  but,  as  has  been  shown, 
he  began  practically  at  the  point  where  Haydn  and  Mozart 
left  off,  with  compositions  which  can  hardly  be  placed  on  a 
higher  level  than  theirs;  and,  in  the  course  of  a  life  full  of 
strenuous  experiences,  he  gradually  unfolded  the  resources 
which  he  had  received  from  his  predecessors,  until  he  made 
them  adequate  to  give  vent  to  the  mighty  ideas  which  welled 
from  his  soul.  Thus  we  find  in  his  works  a  period  in  which 
form  is  rigidly  observed;  and  we  pass  thence  through  an 
era  of  expansion,  during  which  form  becomes  more  elastic, 
through  the  added  requirements  placed  upon  it,  until  the 
(307) 


308  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

thought  and  emotion  become  so  paramount  that  the  formal 
Hues  have  entirely  disappeared,  and  are  only  to  be  traced  by 
careful  analysis, 

Beethoven  and  the  Orchestra. — As  the  great  exponent  of 
instrumental  music,  Beethoven  found  the  orchestra  his  best 
and  fullest  vehicle  of  expression.  So  his  massive  mind, 
grasping  with  ease  the  effects  of  manifold  combinations  of 
instruments,  was  able  to  mould  his  thoughts  into  terms  of 
tone  color  in  which  each  instrument  should  be  employed  to 
bring  out  the  exact  shade  of  feeling  required.  So  the  or- 
chestra becomes  with  him  a  great  individual  instrument, 
responding  to  the  slightest  change  of  mood. 

Use  of  the  Piano. — But  as  a  preparation  for  such  orches- 
tral work,  Beethoven  realized  the  value  of  the  pianoforte. 
Attaining  a  marvelous  degree  of  virtuosity  in  the  use  of 
the  keyboard  at  an  early  age,  he  later  found  this  of  the 
greatest  advantage  in  working  out  his  ideas,  and,  further, 
in  actually  trying  their  effects  upon  auditors.  Thus  we  find 
in  his  first  pianoforte  sonatas  effects  which  appeared  much 
later  in  the  greater  elaboration  of  his  symphonies ;  thus  also 
is  shown  the  necessary  imperfection  of  any  division  of  his 
works  into  distinct  periods,  since  his  pianoforte  style  was 
so  greatly  in  advance  of  his  orchestral. 

Improvement  in  the  Piano. — In  this  connection,  it  is  im- 
portant to  note  that  Beethoven's  resources  were  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  improvements  which  had  been  made  in  piano 
manufacture.  The  demand  for  instruments,  created  by  the 
growing  popularity  of  the  pianoforte,  stimulated  manufac- 
turers to  redoubled  energy  in  perfecting  them ;  and,  con- 
versely, the  added  resources  thus  developed  were  an  in- 
stigation to  composers  to  test  their  abilities  in  the  inven- 
tion of  new  effects.  Thus  Peethoven  was  placed  in  com.- 
mand  of  a  piano  of  much  greater  power  than  Mozart's ;  and 
the  work  of  technicians,  like  Clementi,  for  whom  he  had 
great  respect,  was  already  hinting  at  new  and  marvelous 
possibilities. 

Added  Sonority  and  Sustaining  Power. — This  strength  of 
construction  resulted  in  greater  sonority.     Hence  we  find 


STRUCTURE   OF   BEETHOVEN'S    SONATAS.  309 

full  chord  progressions  and  rich  floods  of  tone  in  Bee- 
thoven's works,  in  place  of  the  dainty  harmonic  accompani- 
ment of  former  writers.  Moreover,  the  increase  in  sus- 
taining- force,  enhanced  by  the  use  of  the  pedal,  made  pos- 
sible a  sustained  legato  tone  for  singing  passages,  which 
had  formerly  to  be  merely  hinted  at  through  shakes  and 
other  embellishments.  A  consequent  tone  variety  made  it 
possible  to  emphasize  a  single  voice  in  this  way,  while  the 
accompanying  harmonies  could  be  kept  well  in  the  back- 
ground. Again,  this  range  of  tone  proved  an  incentive  for 
long  crescendos,  from  the  softest  suspicion  of  sound  to  an 
overwhelming  tonal  climax. 

Increased  Compass. — The  added  range  which  the  keyboard 
developed  also  enhanced  such  effects,  by  the  chance  for 
brilliancy  in  the  treble,  and  for  profundity  in  the  bass ; 
moreover,  Beethoven  was  quick  to  make  use  of  the  variety 
of  effects  caused  by  playing  in  the  different  registers;  some- 
times suggesting  in  this  way  the  contrast  in  the  orchestra 
between  different  groups  of  instruments,  such  as  the  strings 
and  woodwind. 

Structure  of  Beethoven's  Sonatas. — With  such  resources 
at  his  command,  Beethoven  was  able  to  give  a  fuller  scope 
to  the  Sonata  than  was  formerly  possible,  filling  out  eacK 
movement,  and  perfecting  it  for  the  expression  of  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  general  idea,  and  finally  placing  it  in  its 
proper  relationship  to  the  whole.  The  Sonata  Form,  as 
settled  by  Haydn,  was  made  the  point  of  departure,  serving 
almost  invariably  as  the  basis  of  the  first  movement,  and  fre- 
quently, in  shortened  form,  for  the  second,  generally  slow, 
movement.  For  the  third  movement,  Beethoven  at  first  em- 
ployed the  Minuet,  following  the  custom  in  the  symphonies 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart;  but  later  this  was  generally  omitted 
in  the  pianoforte  sonatas,  while  in  the  symphonies  its  time 
was  quickened  into  that  of  the  dainty,  sparkling  Scherzo. 
For  /he  finale,  the  Rondo  form  was  most  frequent;  though, 
in  o»  der  to  give  a  fuller  compass  to  the  thought,  a  combina- 
tion of  the  Rondo  and  Sonata  forms  was  invented  by  Bee- 
thoven, and  used  even  in  his  first  sonatas.     The  Rondo 


3IO  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

form  also  appeared  occasionally  in  the  slow  movement.  Add 
that  other  forms,  notably  that  of  the  \ariation,  sometimes 
supplanted  one  or  the  other  of  these,  and  we  have  the  struc- 
ture generally  followed  by  Beethoven. 

"Unity  of  Conception. — All  these  movements  were  asso- 
ciated in  an  organic  unity  of  conception  which  made  one 
grow  out  of  another  with  perfect  naturalness.  Sometimes, 
indeed,  as  in  opus  27,  a  continuity  of  performance  was  in- 
dicated ;  always,  however,  the  feeling  of  dependence  of 
one  movement  upon  another  is  present;  so  that  the  criti- 
cism made  upon  Haydn's  symphonies,  that  a  movement  of 
one  could  be  interchanged  with  a  similar  movement  of  any 
other  without  perceptible  difference,  could  never  be  made 
with  regard  to  Beethoven's  works. 

Key  Relationship. — In  key  relationship,  Beethoven  struck 
out  from  stereotyped  paths,  frequently  using  contrasting 
keys  related  to  the  third  of  the  initial  chord;  thus  a  move- 
ment or  passage  in  C  major  might  be  followed  by  any  key 
related  to  E,  the  third  of  the  chord  of  C,  such  as  E  or  A 
major  or  minor.  The  original  key  was  most  widely  de- 
parted from  in  the  slow  movement,  where  the  beauty  of  i 
contrast  was  exceptionally  noticeable.  j 

Number   of   Movements.  —  The    number    of    movements     ' 
which  he  adopted  was  at  first  four,  but  this  afterwards 
varied  considerably,  two  or  three  movements  prevailing;     , 
while  in  the  fantasie-sonatas,  and  especially  in  the  last  five     * 
sonatas,  an  indefinite  number  of  movements,  some  of  them 
very  short,  appeared.     He  explained  this  discrepancy  on 
the  ground  that  he  adapted  the  number  of  movements  to 
his  thought;   and  when  he  felt  that  he  had  given  complete 
expression  to  this,  the  sonata  was  brought  to  a  close. 

Development  of  First  Movement  Form. — Of  Beethoven's 
first  movements,  it  may  be  said  that  no  one  has  ever  spoken 
with  the  perfect  freedom  and  naturalness  which  he  dis- 
plays. Each  part  of  the  movement  he  strengthened  and  de- 
veloped; the  first  section  announced  two  themes,  contrast- 
ing, but  still  closely  identified;  sometimes  with  a  slow  in- 
troduction to  usher  them  in;    the  Development  was  g^ven 


BEETHOVEN'S    METHODS    IN    COMPOSITION.  3II 

a  contrapuntal  treatment,  solidified  by  rich  harmonies ;  the 
third  section  was  varied  by  rhythmic  or  tonal  devices,  tend- 
ing to  broaden  its  effect;  and,  finally,  the  Coda  was  some- 
times developed  to  the  length  of  a  fourth  section,  in  which 
reminiscences  of  material  used  previously  were  worked  up 
to  a  fitting  climax. 

Devices  for  Giving  TJnity. — But  the  most  evident  charac- 
teristic which  Beethoven  put  into  this  form  was  that  of 
Unity,  or  Continuity  of  idea.  This  he  accomplished  by  sev- 
eral means.  Of  these,  the  first  was  by  separating  the  most 
striking  parts  of  his  subjects  into  short,  definite  phrases  or 
motives,  and  by  introducing  these  in  every  variety  of  man- 
ner throughout  the  movement,  sometimes  in  a  sequence  on 
different  degrees  of  the  scale,  sometimes  by  imitation  in 
different  voices,  again  by  varying  the  length  of  the  com- 
ponent notes,  and  finally  by  dropping  off  portions,  while 
the  portions  remaining  keep  the  idea  still  before  the  au- 
ditor. Or,  some  casual  phrase,  in  an  unimportant  section, 
will  strike  his  fancy  and  he  will  develop  it  with  a  wealth 
of  imagery  astonishing  in  its  inventiveness.^ 

Continuity  of  Various  Parts. — This  constant  presentment 
of  a  thematic  idea  also  serves  to  bind  passages  closely  to- 
gether which,  in  the  sonatas  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  were 
separated  by  definite  pauses.  Indeed,  Beethoven  sedulously 
avoids  a  complete  cadence,  seeking,  by  leading  the  listener 
eagerly  on  from  one  connecting  phrase  to  another,  to  re- 
tain the  interest  and  make  it  mount  up  higher  and  higher, 
as  the  effects  grow  in  intensity.  So  phrases  are  made  to 
overlap  one  another,  with  their  boundaries  practically 
eliminated.  It  has  been  said  that  Beethoven  tore  down  the 
fences  which  Haydn  and  Mozart  had  erected  between  the 
various  parts  of  the  Sonata  Form;  and  this  is  proven  by 
the  fact  that,  in  the  Beethoven  sonatas,  authorities  fre- 
quently differ  as  to  where  one  part  ends  and  another  begins, 
so  close  and  continuous  is  the  bond  between  them. 


^  See  especially  Op.  14,  No.  2,  first  movement. 


312  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUblc. 

Dramatic  Effects  in  Climaxes. — This  close  connection  is 
made  a  ready  element  toward  the  dramatic  expression  which 
finds  vent  in  the  climaxes,  made  from  culminating  tonal 
effects,  where  the  thematic  phrase  mounts  up  step  by  step, 
higher  and  higher,  growing  breathless  by  shortened  rhythm, 
until  the  hearer  is  brought  to  the  summit  of  dramatic  in- 
tensity; and  here  thunderous  arpeggios,  mingled  together 
by  the  use  of  the  pedal,  hold  him  spellbound  with  their 
sonorous  waves  of  sound.  The  supreme  passion  which 
Beethoven  does  not  wholly  conceal  even  in  his  quieter 
moods  appears  frequently  in  strange,  agitated  rhythms  and 
startling  accents  thrown  upon  unexpected  notes  or  in  un- 
expected places.  He  also  used  many  more  marks  of  ex- 
pression than  his  predecessors. 

Freedom  in  Modulations. — The  boldness  of  his  modula- 
tions has  already  been  mentioned ;  and  these  appear  with 
the  most  freedom  in  the  development  sections,  where  tonali- 
ties pile  upon  one  another,  until  the  auditor  is  apparently 
inextricably  involved  in  a  maze  of  harmonies ;  from  which, 
naturally  as  the  awakening  from  a  dream,  he  finds  himself 
transported  back  to  the  original  key,  in  which  the  first 
theme  is  taking  its  course.  Beethoven's  sense  of  propor- 
tion, however,  sees  to  it  that  this  intricacy  of  keys  is  well 
prepared  by  the  definite  tonality  Sif  his  original  subjects, 
and  by  the  final  complete  restatement  of  the  original  key. 
His  harmonies  frequently  shocked  his  contemporaries  by 
their  violations  of  conventional  rules;  but  they  have  long 
since  been  justified  by  succeeding  musicians,  who  have  de- 
parted from  them  to  much  bolder  flights. 

Program  Music. — It  has  been  said  that  Beethoven  fur- 
nishes examples  of  the  program  style — that  is,  the  de- 
picting of  definite  ideas  through  music.  We  have  already 
found  a  tendency  of  this  sort  among  the  early  French  clavier 
composers — Rameau,  the  Couperins  and  others  of  their 
school ;  also  in  some  of  the  German  writers,  like  Pachelbel 
and  Kuhnau.  Viewed  in  relation  to  these  early  composers, 
Beethoven's  work  seems  to  have  little  in  common,  since 
his  nearest  approach  to  program  music  was  in  attaching  to 


ATTENTION    TO   DETAIL.  313 

some  o£  his  works  certain  moods,  inspired  by  events  or 
scenes.  Thus  he  gives  the  name  "Pathetique"  to  the  sonata, 
opus  13,  "Appassionata"  to  opus  57,  "Les  Adieux"  to  opus 
81 ;  while  we  have  the  "Pastoral"  symphony,  depicting  the 
mood  inspired  by  country  scenes,  and  the  "Eroica,"  show- 
ing the  mood  arising  from  the  contemplation  of  a  hero's 
career. 

Pianoforte  Concertos. — The  same  characteristics  which  arc 
noted  in  his  pianoforte  sonatas  appeared,  developed  still 
further,  in  his  larger  works,  such  as  his  symphonies  and 
piano  concertos.  The  latter,  five  in  number,  display  the 
resources  of  the  virtuosity  of  Beethoven's  day,  and  yet  keep 
this  always  subordinated  to  the  inspired  musical  sentiment, 
with  which  the  orchestra  nobly  accords.  The  last  two  of 
these,  belonging  to  the  maturity  of  his  genius,  amply  dis- 
play the  powers  of  genuine  expression. 

"Variations. — Of  numerous  other  piano  compositions,  the 
sets  of  Variations  are  prominent.  He  was  fond  of  taking 
some  short  and  simply  constructed  musical  thought,  some- 
tim.es  from  some  song  or  opera,  and  treating  it  in  everv 
variety  of  manner  that  his  fertile  genius  could  suggest. 
Such  compositions,  while  generally  playful  in  mood,  have 
the  finish  which  Beethoven  never  failed  to  give  to  his  work. 

Beethoven's  Accuracy  in  "Writing. — It  is  this  serious- 
ness toward  his  art  which  most  fully  accentuates  the  real 
underlying  drift  of  his  nature.  In  the  midst  of  his  untid)-' 
menage,  when  confusion  of  material  goods  reigned  about 
him,  Beethoven  nevertheless  treated  each  work  which  flowed 
from  his  pen  with  the  most  careful  and  critical  revision, 
never  allowing  it  to  go  out  until  he  had  absolutely  fixed 
each  note  in  its  proper  place.  Where  his  art  was  involved, 
his  usually  irritable. nature  acquired  a  fund  of  patience;  so 
that  sometimes  whole  scores  were  rewritten,  until  he  arrived 
at  accurate  expression ;  and,  when  that  point  was  reached, 
his  fiat  was  irrevocable.  It  is  thus  a  satisfaction  to  note 
that  he  has  not  left  us  the  erratic  wanderings  of  an  eccen- 
tric mind ;  but  the  completed  and  matured  product  of  a 
genius,  speaking  with  authority  and  precision. 


314  the  history  of  music. 

Referexces. 

Weitzmann. — History  of  I'ianoforte  Playin<::;^. 

Parry. — Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,  Chapter  XII. 

Shedlock. — The  Pianoforte  Sonata,  Chapter  VH. 

Niemann. — History  of  Alusic.  \'ol.  II,  Chapter  XXXII. 

Scnli^ler. — Life  of  Beethoven. 

Other  lives  of  Beethoven,  especially  that  in  Grove's  Dic- 
tionary. 

For  musical  illustrations,  consult  the  works  of  Beethoven, 
especially  the  Pianoforte  sonatas,  published  complete  in  all 
the  cheap  editions. 

Questions. 

Contrast  Bach  and  Beethoven. 

Characterize  Beethoven's  three  periods. 

What  was  the  greatest  means  of  expression  in  Beethoven  ? 

What  was  the  value  of  his  work  for  the  piano  in  relation 
to  the  orchestra? 

What  was  the  effect  of  the  improvements  in  the  piano  of 
Beethoven's  time  over  that  of  Mozart? 

Give  a  statement  of  the  Sonata  as  constructed  by  Bee- 
thoven. 

What  changes  did  he  introduce :  Key  relationship  ?  Num- 
ber of  movements? 

What  qualities  are  found  in  his  first  movement  form  ? 

How  does  he  secure  great  unity  and  continuity  of  idea? 

How  does  he  secure  dramatic  expression? 

Where  does  he  introduce  bold  modulations?  With  what 
effect? 

What  use  did  Beethoven  make  of  the  program  idea? 

Tell  about  his  Concertos.    His  Variations. 


LESSON  XXXIV. 

The  Violin  and  its  Makers. 

Change  from  the  Viol  to  the  Violin. — The  reader  who  ha? 
studied  the  principles  of  constiuction  and  playing  of  the 
old  string  instruments,  as  explained  in  Lesson  XV,  or  ex- 
amined them  in  museums,  will  not  have  failed  to  note  that 
they  were  complicated  and  limited  in  technic.  The  mem- 
bers of  this  family  were  large  and  cumbersome,  troublesome 
to  handle  and  not  particularly  graceful  or  pleasing  to  the 
eye ;  the  position  in  which  the  player  was  forced  to  hold 
them  was  difficult  to  mamtain  and  not  conducive  to  a  rapid, 
facile  technic.  Now,  the  direction  of  a  perfected  art  is  al- 
ways toward  simplicity ;  the  various  members  of  the  viol 
family  were  to  yield  place  to  a  new  instrument,  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  original  type,  and  one  that  possessed  some  strik- 
ing and  valuable  advantages  over  the  viol.  Another  ele- 
ment that  aided  in  the  change  from  the  viol  was  the  efiforts 
of  composers  to  produce  a  distinctive  instrumental  music, 
a  style  which  demanded  an  instrument  with  a  higher  range 
than  the  viols,  corresponding  to  the  highest  female  voice. 
Still  another  element  to  be  considered  was  the  stir  in  in- 
tellectual, social,  political  and  commercial  life  which  was 
evident  everywhere,  the  product  of  the  Renaissance,  Music 
was  influenced  by  this  spirit;  composers  were  seeking  new 
forms  in  which  to  express  their  thoughts  and  were  calling 
for  new  and  better  media  for  presenting  them  to  others. 
As  composers  gained  in  breadth  and  power  of  conception, 
instruments  were  improved  even  beyond  their  demands; 
the  increase  in  resources  stimulated,  in  turn,  the  composers. 
At  this  period  music  was  on  the  threshold  of  a  splendid 
activity  in  instrumental  lines,  the  reign  of  the  old  choraJ 

(315) 


3l6  THE    HISTORY   OF   MUSIC. 

music  and  the  coiUrapunLal  composer  was  being  challenged, 
and  the  way  prepared  k)r  Haydn,  Mozart  and  Beethoven. 

Beginning  of  the  Violin.— With  regard  to  the  violin,  as 
in  other  beginnings,  there  is  disagreement;  the  strongest 
claims  are  set  forth  lor  France  and  Italy,  with  German  his- 
torians by  no  means  lax  in  attributing  the  first  instruments 
to  one  ol  their  own  countrymen.  We  give  the  following 
facts  which  seem  to  divide  the  honors:  In  the  scores  of 
Italian  works  of  the  i6th  century,  a  part  may  be  found  for 
what  is  called  the  piccolo  violino  alia  francese  (little  French 
viol),  a  fact  which  would  argue  that  an  instrument  of  this 
kind,  perhaps  most  commonly  used  in  France,  had  been 
known  for  some  time.  The  oldest  known  instrument  of 
the  violin  type  is  one  which  bears  the  date  1449,  ^^^  is 
signed  Jean  Kerlin,  a  Breton  luthier  (lute  m.aker,  a  term 
applied  also  to  violin  makers),  whose  name  is  also  given  as 
Kerlino,  living  in  Brescia,  Italy,  in  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century.  About  the  same  time  there  lived  in  Bologna, 
Padua  and  Venice,  members  of  a  celebrated  lute-making 
family,  named  Duiffoprugcar,  Italian  equivalent  for  the 
German  name,  Tieflfenbrucker,  for  the  family  came  from 
the  Italian  Tyrol.  The  most  celebrated  member  of  this 
family  was  Gasparo  Duiflfoprugcar  (Casper  Tieflfenbrucker), 
who  was  born  about  1469,  Hved  in  Bologna  until  1515,  when 
he  went  to  Paris.  Later  he  removed  to  Lyons,  where  he 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  Six  instruments  having  violin 
characteristics  (high,  not  sloping  shoulders,  deeper  curv^es 
in  the  waist  and  better-defined  /  holes)  are  attributed  to 
him,  bearing  dates  of  1510,  1511,  1515  and  1517. 

Early  Italian  Makers. — The  next  name  is  that  of  Gasparo 
di  Salo,  founder  of  the  Brescian  school  of  violin-making, 
who  was  born  at  a  little  village  called  Salo,  on  Lake  Garda; 
hence  his  name.  His  model  varied,  sometimes  it  was  high, 
at  other  times  flat;  as  his  instruments  produced  a  full, 
sonorous  tone,  the  model  was  revived  in  later  years  by 
Joseph  Guamerius.  His  tenors  and  double-basses  are  con- 
sidered his  finest  work,  his  violins  being  a  trifle  small.  The 
favorite  double  bass  of  Dragonetti,  the  famous  contrabassist, 


THE    CREMONA    SCHOOL.  317 

was  by  di  Salo;  Ole  Bull  frequently  played  on  a  di  Salo 
violin  in  his  concerts.  The  greatest  successor  of  di  Salo 
was  his  puj)il,  Giovanni  Paolo  Maggini  (1590-1640),  whose 
violins  are  highly  piized.  They  are  characterized  by  a 
brown  varnish  and  a  double  purfling. 

The  Cremona  School. — With  the  public  the  name  Cremona 
is  indissolubly  connected  with  violin-making.  In  the  i6th 
century  this  city  was  a  famous  art  centre,  rivaling  Bologna 
in  music  and  painting.  The  first  great  maker  and  founder 
of  the  Cremona  school  was  Andrea  (Andrew)  Amati,  born 
about  1520  and  died  1577  or  1580.^  He  used  mostly  a  small 
pattern,  top  and  back  high,  the  varnish  amber  in  color.  A 
number  of  his  instruments  furnished  for  the  Chapel  Royal 
of  Charles  IX  were  known  to  have  been  in  V^ersailles  prior 
to  the  French  Revolution.  The  Amati  style  was  continued 
by  Andrea's  two  sons,  Antonio  (Anthony)  and  Hieronymus 
(Geronimo  or  Jerome)  Amati.  The  former  is  said  to  have 
lived  1550-1638,  the  latter  1551-1635.  They  worked  con- 
jointly, although  the  latter  made  some  experiments  with  a 
larger  model  than  the  usual  Amati. 

Nicole  Amati. — The  greatest  of  the  Amati  family  and  the 
one  whose  instruments  are  still  highly  prized  was  Nicole 
(Nicolaus)  Amati  (1596-1684),  the  son  of  Geronimo.  He 
forms  one  of  the  great  triumvirate  of  violin-making,  Amati, 
Guarnerius  and  Stradivarius.  At  first  he  followed  the  small 
form  adopted  by  his  father  and  his  uncle,  although  he  im- 
proved on  the  workmanship.  But  about  1625,  no  doubt  as 
the  result  of  an  experiment,  he  began  to  use  a  slightly  larger 
pattern  which  is  known  to  connoisseurs  as  the  "Grand 
Amati."  These  instruments  represent  his  best  work  and 
command  a  high  price.  The  Amati  tone  is  sweet,  mellow 
yet  somewhat  delicate,  although  remarkable  in  purity;  the 
instruments  are  unsuited  to  orchestral  work,  although  ad- 
mirable in  chamber  music,  particularly  of  the  old  style.  The 
varnish  is  yellowish  or  amber  colored. 

Teseph  Guarnerius. — In  our  study  of  the  piano  we  noted 
how  the  small,  weak  tone  of  the  clavichord  and  harpsichord 

*  Grove's  Dictionary  says   1611. 


3l8  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

gave  way  before  the  fuller  toned,  sonorous  pianoforte, 
which,  with  its  greater  possibilities,  came  into  use  at  a 
time  when  composers  were  seeking  for  means  to  give 
increased  breadth  and  power  to  the  reproduction  of  their 
music.  It  would  have  been  unfortunate  for  instrumental 
music  if  the  small  though  sweet  tone  of  the  Amati  violin 
had  been  accepted  as  the  ideal.  We  could  not  have  had  the 
surging  tumult  of  Beethoven's  "Eroica"  symphony,  the 
great  dramatic  pictures  of  Wagner  with  the  Amati  to  lay 
on  the  colors.  More  tone,  more  sonorousness,  more  virile 
singing  was  needed.  One  of  the  men  to  place  in  the  hands 
of  executants  the  instrument  to  work  out  the  conceptions 
of  the  great  composers  was  Giuseppe  Guarneri  or,  as  he 
is  generally  called,  Joseph  Guarnerius  del  Gesu.  He  was 
born  at  Cremona,  1683,  and  belonged  to  a  family  of  lute 
and  violin  makers.  He  has  been  credited  with  having  been 
a  pupil  of  Stradivari,  yet  his  instruments  show  no  trace  of 
that  maker's  influence.  He  seems  to  have  been  impressed 
with  the  tone-producing  qualities  of  the  di  Salo  violins,  for 
his  best  instruments  have  something  of  their  bold,  vigorous 
style.  He  was  an  experimenter,  ever  seeking,  it  would 
seem,  for  the  means  of  producing  big,  sonorous  tone,  and 
changed  his  model  frequently,  for  which  reason  his  instru- 
ments vary  much  in  value.  His  work  was  not  so  highly 
favored  by  connoisseurs  until  Paganini  showed  the  value 
of  a  Guarnerius  from  the  standpoint  of  tone.  His  best  in- 
struments are  now  greatly  admired  and,  because  so  few  in 
good  condition  are  known,  command  a  high  price.  The 
date  of  Guarnerius'  death  is  not  known.  Others  of  the 
Guarnerius  family  who  lived  and  worked  at  Cremona  were 
Andreas  Guarnerius,  uncle  to  Giuseppe,  his  son  also  called 
Joseph  and  known  as  "Alius  Andrece"  (Son  of  Andreas)  to 
distinguish  him  from  his  cousin,  Joseph  del  Gesu,  another 
son  Peter,  "of  Cremona,"  and  a  son  of  Joseph  Ulius  Andrece, 
known  as  Peter  of  Venice. 

Antonins  Stradivarius.  —  The  greatest  of  violin-makers 
who  united  in  his  instruments  the  brilliant  and  powerful 
tone  of  di  Salo  and  the  Brescian  school  and  the  purity  and 


STRADIVARIUS.  319 

finish  of  the  Amati  was  Antonius  Stradivarius  (Antonio 
Stradivari  is  the  ItaHan  form),  born  in  1644,  one  year  after 
the  death  of  Monteverde,  and  died  in  1737,  five  years  after 
the  birth  of  Haydn,  a  period  of  nearly  a  century  in  which  a 
most  significant  development  took  place  in  music.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  Nicolo  Amati,  and  the  instruments  of  his 
early  years  are  faithful  copies  of  that  master's  work ;  but  as 
he  grew  in  years  and  experience  he  improved  on  the  Amati 
model,  every  change  tending  to  produce  a  more  powerful 
and  resonant  tone.  The  differences  that  strike  the  eye  most 
strongly  are  the  larger  proportions,  the  flatter  arch  of  the 
top,  and  the  shape  of  the  sound  holes.  In  his  earlier  in- 
struments he  used  a  yellowish  varnish ;  after  1684,  one  of 
a  reddish  tint.  Stradivarius  also  fixed  the  form  and  ad- 
justment of  the  bridge.  He  left  two  sons,  Francesco  and 
Omoboni,  who  finished  some  of  their  father's  instruments 
after  his  death.  They  both  died  five  or  six  years  later. 
Pupils  of  Stradivarius  who  made  excellent  instruments  were 
Carlo  Bergonzi  (1712-1750),  Lorenzo  Guadagnini  (1695- 
1740)  and  his  son  Johannes  Baptista  Guadagnini  (1750- 
1785)  and  Alessandro  Gagliano. 

Other  Makers. — Germany's  contribution  to  violin-making 
dates  from  Jakob  Stainer,  of  Absam  in  Tyrol  (1621-1683). 
Tradition  has  it  that  he  learned  his  art  at  Cremona;  if  so, 
his  work  shows  no  influence  of  the  Amati;  his  model  is 
different,  somewhat  broader  and  shorter,  the  arch  of  the 
belly  is  greater,  and  the  sound  holes  are  set  differently; 
the  varnish  varies  from  a  brown  to  an  amber  color;  the 
tone  is  sweet  and  quick  to  respond,  but  lacks  intensity.  A 
follower  of  Stainer  was  Aegidius  Klotz  (1653-1743),  many 
of  whose  instruments  were  sold  as  of  Stainer's  make. 
France  contributed  no  makers  of  great  renown.  The  names 
of  importance  are  Nicholas  Lupot  (1758- 1824),  a  follower 
of  Stradivarius,  and  J.  B.  Vuillaume  (1799-1875).  In 
England  the  most  distinguished  names  are  Richard  Duke 
and  Benjamin  Banks  (1727- 1795). 

The  Violin  Bow. — A  few  words  must  be  said  in  regard 
to  the  bow,  the  means  for  producing  tone  from  the  violin 


320  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

strings.  In  its  earliest  form  it  was  simply  a  bow  with  a 
stretched  string.  Hair  came  into  use,  to  replace  the  string, 
about  the  13th  century,  and  the  bow  lost  its  original  shape, 
becoming  straight  for  nearly  its  entire  length,  curving 
downward  at  the  point.  Corelli  used  a  bow  of  this  shape. 
Tartini's  bow  had  the  same  shape,  but  was  made  longer. 
At  the  end  of  the  i8th  century,  Francois  Tourte  (1747- 
1835),  a  Paris  bow-maker,  lengthened  the  bow  still  more, 
and  bent  it  slightly  inward,  giving  it  the  form  familiar  to 
us  today.  Viotti  was  the  first  great  player  to  use  this  style 
of  bow,  and  is  credited  with  a  share  in  perfecting  it.  It 
is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  upon  Tourte's  improvements 
to  the  bow  rests  the  whole  fabric  of  modern  violin-playing, 
with  its  wonderful  variety  of  execution  and  consequent 
nuances  in  expression. 

Tlie  Viola  and  the  Violoncello. — Two  other  instruments 
of  the  violin  type  are  in  use,  the  Viola,  the  tenor  violin, 
and  the  Violoncello,  the  bass  violin ;  both  these  instru- 
ments shared  in  the  development  of  the  violin,  and  were 
made  by  the  great  makers,  Amati,  Guarnerius  and  Strad- 
ivarius.  The  Contra-bass,  the  bass-viol,  as  it  is  often  called, 
while  it  is  used  to  furnish  the  bass  to  the  string  orchestra, 
is  a  member  of  the  viol  family,  having  the  special  charac- 
teristics, sloping  shoulders  and  flat  back.  Instruments  were 
made  on  the  violin  pattern,  but  given  up  as  less  satisfac- 
tory than  the  viol  type. 

The  impetus  given  to  instrumental  composition  by  the 
perfecting  of  the  instruments  of  the  string  group  stimu- 
lated makers  to  work  for  improvement  in  those  belonging 
to  the  family  of  wind  instruments,  flutes,  oboes,  clarinets, 
horns,  harps,  etc.,  thus  offering  the  means  to  reproduce 
for  hearers  the  great  conceptions  of  the  tone-masters. 

References. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  article  on  the 
violin. 

Stoeving. — Story  of  the  Violin. 

Hart. — The  Violin.  Its  Famous  Makers  and  their  Im- 
itators. 


I 


I 


LESSON    HELPS.  ,-?2T 

Heron-Allen.     Violin-Making  as   it   Was   and   Is. 

Haweis. — Old  Violins. 

Questions. 

Why  did  the  Viol  type  yield  to  the  Violin  ? 

Who  is  credited  with  being  the  originator  of  the  Violin 
type? 

Give  the  names  of  the  eariy  Italian  makers. 

What  noted  family  of  violin  makers  started  the  fame  of 
Cremona  ? 

What  was  the  model  used  by  the  Amati  family? 

What  improvements  did  Joseph  Guarnerius  make? 

What  was  Stradivarius'  contribution? 

Who  was  the  greatest  German  maker?  Name  French 
and  English  makers. 

Compare  the  great  makers  of  violins  and  their  work. 

The  author  suggests  that  a  violin,  viola,  'cello  and  double 
bass  and  the  respective  bows  be  exhibited  to  the  class  and 
examined,  the  descriptions  as  given  in  the  reference  works 
to  be  compared  with  the  instruments.  The  catalogue  of  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York  City,  contains 
some  fine  illustrations  for  the  use  of  students,  as  well  as 
descriptions.  A  copy  of  this  should  be  in  every  teacher's 
library.  It  can  be  secured  for  a  small  amount  by  addressing 
the  Museum  as  above. 


LESSON  XXXV. 

Violin  Playing  and  Violin  Music. 

Eeciprocal  Influences  of  Instruments  and  Composition. — 

The  development  of  the  violin,  of  violin  playing  and  violin 
music,  in  a  certain  sense  shows  reciprocal  influences,  and 
went  hand  in  hand.  This  was  the  more  certain  because  the 
composers  who  wrote  for  the  instrument  were  also  players, 
in  almost  every  instance  the  virtuosi  of  their  times.  Dur- 
ing the  polyphonic  period,  composers  were  singers  or  or- 
ganists; during  the  period  when  the  violin  dominated  in- 
strumental composition,  composers  in  that  form  were  usu- 
ally violinists.  In  the  next  period,  when  the  pianoforte 
was  coming  to  the  front,  the  representative  composers  were 
clavier  composers.  And  since  then  with  but  few  excep- 
tions the  great  composers  have  also  been  pianists. 

Earliest  Violin  Compositions. — In  the  music  of  the  viol 
period  no  demands  were  made  upon  the  instrumental  player 
except  that  he  should  double  the  voice  part,  which  was 
simple,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  modern  violin  play- 
ing. Even  later  when  music  was  written  for  quartets  of 
viols  the  parts  were  vocal  in  character  and  did  not  exceed 
voices  in  range.  The  earliest  known  solo  composition  was 
published  in  1620,  by  Marini.  It  demands  but  little  from 
the  executant.  The  next  work  of  importance  was  in  1627, 
when  Carlo  Farina,  an  Italian  living  at  Dresden,  published 
a  collection  of  pieces  which  show  quite  an  advance  tech- 
nically, including  variety  of  bowing,  double  stopping  and 
chords.  The  names  applied  to  violin  compositions  were: 
Sonate,  Canzone  and  Sinfonia,  the  principle  of  the  first 
named  being  an  alternation  of  slow  and  quick  movements. 
(322) 


EARLY    COMPOSERS    FOR   THE    VIOLIN.  323 

About  1650  the  term  Sonata  comes  into  general  use,  and  a 
further  distinction  is  made  between  Sonata  da  Chiesa 
(church  sonata)  and  Sonata  da  Camera  (chamber  sonata), 
the  former  consisting  of  three  or  four  movements  varying 
in  tempo,  the  latter  being  really  a  suite  of  dances,  with 
slow  and  quick  movements  in  alternation.  The  Church, 
always  ready  to  make  use  of  the  fine  arts,  soon  discovered 
the  capabilities  of  the  violin  and  its  music,  and  adopted  it 
as  one  of  its  musical  forces,  not  merely  for  assisting  in  ac- 
companiments but  for  independent  performances.  As  a  re- 
sult of  this  patronage,  the  violin  sonata,  the  only  form  of 
serious  composition  for  the  instrument,  took  on  the  severer 
character  of  the  church  sonata,  giving  an  impulse  toward 
the  establishment  of  sonata  form. 

Composers  of  the  17th.  Century. — Among  those  who  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  great  ones  to  follow  was  Giovanni 
Battista  Vitali  (1644-1692),  who  shows  in  his  chamber 
sonatas  the  tendency  to  adopt  the  form  of  the  church  sonata. 
His  name  is  best  known  in  violin  literature  by  a  Chaconne 
with  variations,  which  makes  no  inconsiderable  demands 
on  the  technic  of  a  player,  and  must  have  marked  him  out 
as  a  conspicuous  player  in  his  own  time.  This  is  a  worthy 
forerunner  of  Bach's  great  work  in  a  similar  form.  In 
Germany  the  significant  name  is  Heinrich  Biber  (1644- 
1704),  who  had  a  highly  developed  technic  for  that  period, 
for  his  works  carry  the  player  up  to  the  sixth  position  and 
introduce  difficult  double  stopping  and  arpeggios.  The 
next  name  to  be  noticed  is  Giuseppe  Torelli  (1660-1708), 
who  lived  many  years  in  Bologna  as  leader  of  a  church 
orchestra.  He  is  credited  with  having  been  the  first  to 
apply  the  principles  of  construction  as  shown  in  the  church 
sonata  to  concerted  music,  which  later  developed  into  the 
Concerto. 

Corelli. — In  any  great  movement  one  man  seems  to  sum 
up  the  best  of  the  work  of  his  predecessors.  The  name 
associated  with  putting  violin  music  and  playing  on  a  firm 
foundation  is  that  of  Arcangelo  Corelli  (1653-1713),  emi- 
nent both  as  composer  and  player.    He  was  a  contemporary 


324 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


of  Guarnerius  and  Stradivarius,  who  brought  the  instru- 
ment to  perfection.  Of  CorelH's  early  Hfe  Uttle  is  known. 
He  traveled  in  France  and  was  also  in  Munich  for  some 
years.  In  1681  he  returned  to  Italy,  making  his  home  at 
Rome.  As  a  teacher,  he  acquired  great  fame  and  pupils 
came  to  him  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  The  most  eminent 
violinists  who  were  under  his  instruction  were  Geminiani, 
Locatelli,  Somis,  Baptiste,  and  Castrucci.     Corelli  did  not 


ARCANaELo  Corelli. 


invent  new  forms  of  composition  or  of  technic — in  the  lat- 
ter respect  he  did  not  equal  certain  of  his  contemporaries 
— he  was  a  reformer  rather  than  an  innovator.  He  had, 
however,  a  keen  sense  for  effects  that  were  specially  suited 
to  the  instrument,  and  his  conservatism  put  the  art  of  play- 
ing the  violin  on  a  solid  basis  upon  which  others  were  able 
to  add  newer  and  more  difficult  technic.  His  works  included 
forty-eight  three-part  sonatas  for  various  combinations, 
twelve  two-part  sonatas  for  violin  and  cembalo,  nine  for 


TARTINI.  325 

two  violins  and  cembalo,  and  six  concertos  for  two  violins 
and  'cello  with  a  quartet  accompaniment.  The  violin  being 
so  preeminently  a  singing,  a  melody  instrument,  it  is  sin- 
gular that  Corelli  and  his  contemporaries  did  not  grasp  the 
principle  of  using  clearly  defined  melodic  themes.  This 
fact  shows  that  the  influence  of  the  church  sonata  and  its 
rejection  of  a  formal  tune  as  unsuited  to  serious  art  was  still 
strong.  Therefore,  while  Corelli's  works  do  not  show 
themes  such  as  are  characteristic  of  the  next  period  of  the 
sonata,  his  construction  is  logical  and  his  handling  of  his 
form-material  is  concise  and  clear.  The  student  of  Form  in 
music  will  find  the  germs  of  sonata-form  in  Corelli's  works. 

Corelli's  Pupils. — Among  Corelli's  pupils  must  be  men- 
tioned Francesco  Geminiani  (1680-1762),  who  spent  part  of 
his  life  in  England.  He  published  the  first  work  of  a  ped- 
agogic character,  a  "Method  for  Violin  Playing,"  in  Lon- 
don, in  1740.  He  also  recommended  holding  the  violin  on 
the  left  side  instead  of  on  the  right,  as  was  customary  in 
his  time.  Pietro  Locatelli  (1693-1764)  greatly  influenced 
the  development  of  violin  technic.  Giovanni  Battista  Somis 
(1676-1763)  lived  at  Turin,  was  the  teacher  of  Pugnani, 
the  instructor  of  Yiotti.  Antonio  Vivaldi  (1675-1743) 
devoted  himself  to  virtuosity  and  influenced  the  Concerto 
from  this  point.  He  was  fertile  and  ingenious  in  making 
new  combinations  and  devising  new  effects.  J.  S.  Bach 
arranged  his  works,  sixteen  for  the  clavier,  four  for  the 
organ,  and  one  as  a  concerto  for  four  claviers  and  a  quartet 
of  stringed  instruments.  Still  another  name  is  to  be  men- 
tioned, that  of  Francesco  Maria  Veracini  (1685-1750),  who 
greatly  influenced  Tartini  by  his  playing.  He  was  a  player 
full  of  temperament,  which  made  his  playing  powerfully 
expressive.  His  sonatas  are  bold  in  harmonic  and  melodic 
treatment,  and  well  constructed.  Their  technical  difficulty 
is  considerable.     (His  lifetime  coincides  with  Bach.) 

Giuseppe  Tartini  (1692-1770)  is  one  of  the  commanding 
figures  of  musical  history.  He  was  intended  for  the  pro- 
fession of  law  by  his  parents  but,  fortunately  for  music,  did 
not  fall  in  with  the  plan.    A  hasty  marriage  with  the  niece 


326  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

of  an  archbishop  brought  him  into  trouble,  and  he  fled  to 
a  monastery,  where  he  spent  two  years,  devoting  the  greater 
part  of  his  time  to  musical  studies.  At  the  end  of  this  time 
lie  was  allowed  to  rejoin  his  wife,  and  went  to  Venice,  where 
he  learned  to  know  Veracini,  with  whom  he  studied  to  cor- 
xcct  the  faults  he  had  acquired  through  pursuing  his  studies 
undirected.  Again  he  went  into  retirement  and  gave  him- 
self up  to  the  study  of  violin  technic.    Among  other  things 


Giuseppe  Tabtini. 

he  made  some  improvements  in  the  bow,  increasing  the 
range  of  eflfects.  His  contemporaries  ascribe  to  him  "a  fine 
tone,  unlimited  command  of  fingerboard  and  bow,  perfect 
intonation  in  double  stops,  a  most  brilliant  trill  and  double 
trill  as  well,  which  he  could  execute  equally  well  with  all 
fingers."  His  celebrated  composition  "//  Trillo  del  Diavolo'' 
("The  Devil's  Trill")  shows  his  skill  in  embellishments.  A 
technical  work  "Arte  dell'  Arco"  ('The  Art  of  Bowing") 


TARTINI.  327 

g^ves  a  clear  idea  of  his  method  in  that  branch  of  the  vio- 
linist's art.  In  his  compositions  he  shows  advance  on  CorelH 
and  Vivaldi,  for  his  melody  is  broader,  his  phrases  more 
developed  and  clearer,  his  harmonies  richer  and  better  con- 
trasted, with  many  passages  of  a  strongly  emotional  char- 
acter. He  wrote  a  great  number  of  pieces,  sonatas  and  con- 
certos. In  addition  to  his  work  as  player  and  composer, 
Tartini  devoted  himself  to  teaching.  His  school  at  Padua 
was  the  Mecca  of  violinists  from  all  Europe.  In  those  days 
there  were  no  instruction  books ;  Tartini's  pupils  looked  to 
him  for  everything,  and  his  character  as  a  teacher  can  be 
learned  in  a  letter  addressed  by  him  to  a  pupil. ^  Tartini's 
contribution  to  music  also  includes  work  of  a  theoretical 
character.  lie  discovered  the  so-called  combinational  sound, 
by  which  is  meant  the  sounding  of  a  third  sound  when  two 
tones  are  sounded  together.^  He  published  a  treatise  on 
the  subject.  Two  pupils  of  Tartini's  wlio  deserve  mention 
are  Pietro  Nardini  (1722- 1793)  and  Gaetano  Pugnani  (1726- 
1803),  who  was  also  a  pupil  of  Somis,  thus  uniting  in  him- 
self the  teachings  of  the  two  great  masters,  Tartini  and 
Corelli,  which  he  transmitted  to  later  generations  through 
his  great  pupil,  Viotti. 

With  Tartini  the  violin  sonata  of  the  old  type  lost  its 
place,  being  succeeded  by  the  sonata  ^or  the  piano  which 
was  being  developed  by  composers,  giving  rise  to  a  form 
that  was  later  to  be  the  basis  of  a  new  sonata  for  violin 
and  piano  in  which  each  instrument  filled  an  equal  place. 
In  the  earlier  days  the  tone  of  the  clavichord  and  harpsi- 
chord, weak  and  thin,  was  not  suited  save  for  accompany- 
ing the  full-toned  brilliantly  effective  violin ;  but  after  Tar- 
tini's time  the  instrument  gained  in  power  and  sonorous- 
ness and  formed  a  worthy  helpmeet  for  the  violin. 

Violin  playing  in  France  was  largely  influenced  by  Italian 
players.  Lully,  the  opera  composer,  was  a  violinist,  but 
the  Italian  school  had  not  developed  when,  as  a  lad,  he  left 


See  Wasielewski :    Die  Violine  und  Ihre  Meister. 
*  This  third  sound  will  correspond  to  the  difference  of  the  vibration 
aumbers  of  the  other  two. 


328  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

his  native  country.  The  CorelU  principles  were  carried  to 
France  by  Leclair  (1687-1764),  who  received  his  training 
from  Somis,  a  pupil  of  Corelli.  His  treatment  of  the 
bow  showed  the  lightness  and  agility  that  later  became 
distinctive  of  the  French  school.  Pierre  Gavinie's  (1726- 
1800)  lent  strength  to  the  establishment  of  an  independent 
French  school  of  playing.  He  is  best  known  today  by  a  set 
of  difficult  studies.  Giovanni  Battista  Viotti  (1753-1824), 
an  Italian  by  birth,  greatly  influenced  violin  playing  in  his 
day.  As  a  lad  of  seventeen  he  traveled  through  Europe 
with  Pugnani,  his  teacher,  winning  great  success.     Later 


Giovanni  Battista  Viotti. 

he  located  in  Paris,  teaching  and  composing,  giving  reg- 
ularly private  performances  at  which  he  brought  out  his 
concertos.  His  themes  have  a  marked  singing  character, 
and  all  his  writing  is  eminently  suited  to  the  instrument. 
In  his  concertos  he  used  the  elaborated  sonata-form  as  de- 
veloped by  Haydn,  Mozart  and  Beethoven,  and  in  his  ac- 
companiments draws  fully  on  the  resources  of  the  orches- 
tra. His  works  include  a  fine  set  of  duets  for  two  violins. 
His  most  eminent  pupils  were  Pierre  Rode  (1774-1830)  and 
Pierre  Marie  Francois  de  Sales  Baillot    (1771-1S42)    who 


SPOHR.  329 

with  Rodolphe  Kreutzer  (1766-1831)  were  teachers  in  the 
Paris  Conservatoire,  for  which  they  prepared  the  famous 
"Methode  de  Viohn."  Rode  and  Kreutzer  are  famous  in 
vioHn  Hterature  for  their  studies  for  advanced  players. 
Beethoven  dedicated  his  great  sonata  for  piano  and  vioHn, 
Op.  47,  to  Kreutzer,  for  which  reason  it  is  known  by  the 
latter's  name.  In  connection  with  the  educational  writers 
just  mentioned,  Federigo  Fiorillo,  born  1753,  in  Germany,  of 
Italian  parents,  is  to  be  noted.  His  thirty-six  etudes  or 
caprices  rank  with  the  works  of  Rode  and  Kreutzer.  Antonio 
Lolli  (1730-1802)  was  a  virtuoso  and  nothing  else.  His 
execution  was  marvelous,  and  he  was,  in  many  respects,  a 
forerunner  of  Paganini. 

Violin  playing  in  Germany  had  its  source  and  inspiration 
in  the  concert  tours  made  in  that  country  by  the  great  Italian 
virtuosi,  a  number  of  whom  lived  for  periods  of  some  length 
at  the  courts  of  Berlin,  Dresden,  Mannheim  and  other 
capitals,  where  they  trained  pupils  for  the  various  duca^ 
orchestras.  The  orchestra  at  Mannheim  was  the  most  fa- 
mous for  its  work  and  sent  out  a  number  of  fine  players  and 
musicians.  Space  does  not  permit  the  mention  of  these  men. 
The  first  great  name  in  the  violin  world  of  Germany  is 
Ludwig  Spohr  (1784-1859),  who  was  also  one  of  the  great 
composers  of  his  time,  his  activity  leading  him  into  the 
domain  of  the  oratorio  and  opera  as  well  as  orchestra  and 
instrumental  music.  (His  principal  teacher  was  Franz  Eck 
(1774-1804),  who  belonged  to  the  Mannheim  school.)  Later 
he  had  opportunity  to  hear  Rode,  by  whose  playing  he  was 
much  impressed.  He  spent  some  years  in  concertizing,  and 
in  1822  located  at  Cassel  as  the  director  of  the  orchestra 
there.  Here  he  taught  many  noted  pupils,  the  best  known 
being  Ferdinand  David.  While  Spohr  was  a  great  player 
and  a  great  teacher,  he  influenced  modern  violin  playing 
more  by  his  compositions.  Some  of  his  concertos  still 
figure  in  the  violinist's  repertoire  and  his  duos  and  concer- 
tantes  for  two  violins  and  for  violin  and  viola  are  unsur- 
passed by  any  compositions  in  that  style.  In  1831,  he  pub- 
lished his  "VioUn  School,"  which  was  a  standard  work  for 


m 


330 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


many  years.  The  direct  successor  of  Spohr  was  Ferdi- 
nand David  (1810-1873),  a  great  player  and  a  great  teacher 
who  was  associated  with  Mendelssohn  in  the  founding  of 
the  famous  Leipzig  Conservatorium.  From  this  institution 
David's  pupils  went  over  all  Europe  into  positions  of  re- 
sponsibility and  reputation.     His  greatest  pupil  was  August 


LUDWIG    SpOHB. 


Wilhelmj  (b.  1845).  After  David's  death  supremacy  in 
the  field  of  violin  playing  gradually  fell  away  from  Leipzig 
and  centred  in  Berlin  around  Joseph  Joachim,  the  Nestor  of 
the  present-day  *  violin  world. 

The  Vienna  School. — The  southern  Germans  had  certain 
characteristics  wherein  they  differed  from  their  northern 
kin;  they  were  in  closer  touch  with  Italy  iand  were  also 
influenced  by  their  Hungarian  neighbors.  In  Beethoven's 
time  considerable  attention  was  given  by  Viennese  violin- 
ists to  chamber-music.  Four  names  are  prominent:  Kan 
Dittersdorf    (1739-1799),    Anton   Wranitzky    (1756-1808) 

M907. 


JOACHIM.  331 

Joseph  Mayseder  (i78()-i863)  and  Joseph  Boehm  (1795- 
1876),  the  latter  being-  the  teacher  of  a  number  of  famous 
vioHnists,  Hellmesberger,  Dont,  Remenyi,  Ernst  and  Joseph 
Joachim  (b.  1831),  the  latter,  represenung  the  solid,  class- 
ical style  of  his  teacher,  joined  to  i.  mastery  of  the  technic 
of  his  instrument  that  enabled  him  t*.   win  and  maintain  the 


Joseph  Joachim. 


highest  rank  as  virtuoso,  quartet  player  and  composer  for 

his  instrument.  Up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  August 
15,  1907,  he  was  director  of  the  Royal  High  School  of 
Music  in  BerHn.  He  was  the  teacher  of  hundreds  of 
players,  including  many  celebrated  artists  of  the  present 
day. 


332 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


Paganini. — The  most  unique,  most  startling  figure  in 
music  belongs  to  the  violin,  a  law  unto  himself  in  his  play- 
ing, one  for  whom  the  violin  seemed  to  have  been  perfected 
long  years  before  by  Guarnerius  and  Stradivarius  and  one 
who  seemed  to  have  been  made  for  the  violin,  the  hero  of 
fictions  innumerable,  to  w^hom  was  attributed  in  his  day  all 
manner  of  occult  power.  This  mysterious  king  of  the 
violin  was  Niccolo  Paganini,  born  in  Genoa,  February  i8. 
1782,  died  May  27,  1840.  Never  strong  in  body,  in  his 
early  youth  he  gave  himself  up  to  dissipation  to  such  an 
extent  that  he  undermined  his  constitution,  and  passed 
through   the   world   as   a   spectre   rather   than   as   a   man 


Niccolo  Paganini. 


Paganini  was  self-developed,  he  belonged  to  no  school  and 
he  founded  none,  yet  so  great  was  his  command  of  the 
technic  of  the  violin  and  the  bow,  that  no  other  player  so 
profoundly  influenced  contemporaries  and  successors  on 
the  matter  of  virtuosity.  He  taught  but  one  pupil,  Camillo 
Sivori  (1815-1894).  Paganini  greatly  influenced  the 
younger  French  violinists  of  his  day,  among  whom  may 
be  mentioned  Alard  and  Dancla.  After  these  men  come 
Charles  de  Beriot  (1802-1870),  who  represents  the  Belgian 
School,  his  pupil  Henri  Vienxtemps  (1820-1881)  and  third 


LESSON    HELPS.  333 

g-eneration  in  the  line  of  pupilage,  Eugen  Ysaye  (b.  1858). 
Others  who  belong  to  the  Belgian  School  are  Massart 
(teacher  of  Wieniawski,  Kreisler  and  others),  Leonard 
(teacher  of  Cesar  Thomson,  Marsick,  Musin,  Marteau,  etc.). 
At  the  present  time  the  centre  of  interest  in  the  violin 
world  has  shifted  to  Prague,  where  Ottokar  Sevcik  has  sent 
out  young  violinists  of  the  Slav  race  who  display  the  most 
astonishing  technical  mastery. 

References. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  articles  on 
Violin  Playing,  Sonata,  Concerto,  and  players  mentioned  in 
this  lesson. 

Stoeving. — Story  of  the  Violin. 

Ehrlich. — Celebrated  Violinists. 

Hart. — The  Violin  and  its  Music. 

Questions. 

What  was  the  form  of  early  violin  music? 

What  difference  was  there  in  sonatas? 

What  were  Corelli's  contributions  to  music? 

What  were  Tartini's  contributions  to  music? 

Trace  the  connection  between  the  French  and  Italian 
schools. 

Trace  the  connection  between  the  German  and  the  Italian 
schools. 

Trace  the  connection  between  the  Vienna  and  the  Italian 
schools. 

What  composers  contributed  most  largely  to  the  educa- 
tional side  of  violin  music? 

Prepare  a  short  sketch  of  Paganini. 


LESSON  XXXVl. 

The  Orchestra  and  Absolute  Music. 

The  Orchestra  as  a  Means  of  Expression. — The  most  per- 
fect means  for  expression  in  music  is  presented  by  the  or- 
chestra, which,  in  its  complete  form  as  shown  today,  is  the 
result  of  a  long  development  in  many  directions.  To  give 
us  this  magnificent  mass-instrument  required  a  sifting  of 
the  various  instruments  and  the  choice  of  those  that  offered 
the  best  possibilities,  a  perfecting  of  these  instruments,  a 
shaping  of  systems  of  playing  them,  of  technic  that  should 
draw  out  all  possible  effects,  and  an  understanding,  on  the 
part  of  composers,  of  the  nature  and  demands  of  absolute 
music  and  how  best  to  shape  their  conceptions  in  accordance 
with  these  demands.  The  orchestra  and  its  music,  there- 
fore, represents  the  extreme  height  of  man's  work  in  music, 
for  even  when  choral  forces  are  joined  to  the  orchestra, 
the  instrumental  idea  dominates,  as,  for  example,  in  the 
Ninth  Symphony  of  Beethoven,  in  which  the  chorus  is 
simply  a  vocal  band  added  to  the  other  groups.  The  or- 
chestra is  a  great  means  for  musical  expression  because 
it  offers  to  the  composer  the  maximum  of  resources.  In 
modern  days,  when  the  esthetic  principle  of  Unity  in 
Variety  receives  the  most  elastic  interpretation  due  to  the 
demand  for  the  greatest  possible  contrasts  in  tone-color, 
power  and  in  nuances,  all,  however,  intended  to  exhibit  and 
illumine  the  themes  invented  by  the  composer  in  their  vari- 
ous transformations,  in  these  days  the  orchestra  is  truly 
the  most  complete  art-means  known. 

Groups  in  the  Orchestra. — The  orchestra  is  composed  of 
groups  of  instruments  allied  by  similarity  of  construction 
(334) 


ORCHESTRAL    GROUPS.  335 

The  usual  classification  is  into  three  main  groups,  strings, 
(bowed  instruments),  wind  and  percussion  instruments.  In 
the  former  are  included  the  violins,  viola,  violoncello  and 
double  or  contra-bass ;  wind  instruments  subordinate  into 
wood  wind  and  brass,  the  former  include  instruments  of 
the  flute,  oboe,  bassoon  and  clarinet  families,  the  latter  horns, 
trumpets,  trombones,  tuba  or  other  bass  instruments ;  the 
percussion  includes  kettle  drums,  other  drums,  triangles, 
cymbals,  etc. ;  the  harp,  while  a  stringed  instrument,  is  not 
included  in  that  class.  These  instruments  offer  a  great 
variety  of  effects,  singly  and  in  many  possible  combinations, 
in  the  peculiar  effects  possible  by  variety  in  playing,  which 
in  bowed  instruments  is  considerable,  and  particularly  by 
contrast  with  each  other.  While  the  orchestra  today  is  in 
a  highly  developed  condition,  composers  are  seeking  to  ex- 
tend the  limits  of  their  art  by  the  use  of  more  elaborate 
and  subtle  forms ;  so  that  we  cannot  in  any  wise  predict 
the  course  and  limits  of  absolute  music  with  the  almost  un- 
limited resources  at  its  disposal  in  the  modern  orchestra. 

Purpose  in  Combination. — When  we  consider  the  orchestra 
as  a  combination  of  instruments  we  must  bear  in  mind  that 
this  combination  is  the  result  of  a  definite  purpose  to  pro- 
duce music  independent  of  restrictions  such  as  were  shown 
to  have  existed  in  the  days  of  the  domination  of  the  Church. 
The  composers  of  the  early  polyphonic  period  and  up  to 
the  17th  century  bent  their  efforts  to  the  composition  of 
choral  music  which  was  sung  for  many  years  without  in- 
strumental support.  When  later  the  organ,  and  still  later, 
viols  and  other  instruments  were  drafted  into  the  service 
of  church  music,  the  accompaniments  were  not  independent 
of  the  voice,  but  merely  doubled  the  various  parts.  Com- 
posers thought  in  terms  of  voices  and  their  limitations,  not 
in  the  greater  range  and  endurance  of  instruments..  Then, 
too,  the  instruments  were  crude  and  their  tone  lacked  dis- 
tinctiveness as  well  as  the  comparative  sweetness  and  purity 
of  the  vocal  music  of  that  day.  Combinations  of  instru- 
ments existed  in  the  Middle  Ages,  but  not  according  to  a 
system,  and  were  due  to  the  executants  who  assembled  them 


336  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

rather  than  to  the  demand  for  them  in  the  works  of  com- 
posers. It  was  in  the  attempts  at  Hght  dramatic  music 
that  preceded  the  estabhshment  of  the  opera  that  instru- 
ments were  grouped  together,  showing  a  great  weakness, 
from  our  point  of  view,  in  stringed  instruments  played  with 
the  bow,  and  a  corresponding  preponderance  of  brass. 

Influence  of  the  Opera. — The  first  composers  of  opera  and 
oratorio  gave  instrumental  support  to  the  singers,  although 
it  was  very  meager.  Yet  the  opera  gave  the  help  of  that 
great  principle  of  invention,  necessity,  and  composers  be- 
gan to  experiment  with  various  combinations  of  instru- 
ments to  secure  a  more  adequate  accompaniment  for  the 
voice  as  well  as  to  heighten  the  effects  demanded  by  the 
drama.  Monteverde,  an  independent  thinker  and  innovator, 
marked  out  lines  in  which  efforts  should  be  made  by  suc- 
cessors. He  studied  the  characteristic  effects  of  the  various 
groups  and  made  use  of  them  as  he  felt  them.  His  or- 
chestra for  "Orfeo"  (1608)  was  made  up  of  two  harpsi- 
chords, ten  tenor  viols,  two  bass  viols,  two  "little  French 
violins,"  one  double  harp,  two  organs  of  wood,  one  regal, 
two  viole  de  gamba,  two  large  guitars,  two  cornets,  two 
trombones,  three  trumpets  with  mutes,  one  octave  flute,  one 
clarion.  The  most  significant  item  is  found  in  the  "little 
French  violins,"  which  presages  the  appearance  of  the  in- 
strument which  was,  a  century  later,  to  be  recognized  as 
the  backbone  of  the  orchestra.  Among  the  distinctive  in- 
strumental effects  which  Monteverde  introduced  was  the 
tremolo  for  bowed  string  instruments  as  well  as  the  piz- 
zicato. In  looking  over  the  instruments  of  Monteverde's 
orchestra  we  will  note  but  one  wood  wind,  the  flute.  This 
shows  that  composers,  doubtless  through  the  military  use 
of  brass  and  drums,  had  accepted  the  latter  as  means  for 
special  effects.  Instruments  of  the  wood  wind  type  were 
still  too  crude  to  be  admitted.  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  who 
did  so  much  for  the  opera  from  the  side  of  form  and  con- 
tent, also  contributed  to  the  development  of  orchestral  mu- 
sic. He  evidently  perceived  the  importance  of  having  a 
nucleus  around  which  to  build  his  harmonies,  a  group  of 


BACH    AND    HANDEL    CONTRASTED.  337 

instruments  which  should  furnish  a  firm  support  and  which 
could  blend  the  various  tone  qualities.  With  the  intuition 
of  genius  he  selected  the  string  tone  for  this  purpose,  and 
in  this  he  was  greatly  aided  by  the  fact  that  the  Amati 
family,  and  their  successors,  Guarnerius  and  Stradivarius, 
had  already  perfected  the  violin,  although  the  great  players 
were  yet  to  come.  Scarlatti  wrote  in  four  parts  for  the 
string  instruments,  the  treble  part  to  the  first  violin,  the 
alto  to  the  second,  the  tenor  part  to  the 'viola,  which  pre- 
viously had  often  played  in  unison  with  the  double  bass, 
while  the  bass  part  was  taken  by  'cellos  and  basses.  He 
also  added  oboes  and  bassoons  to  the  strings  and  brass. 
Lully  in  France  used  an  orchestra  similar  to  that  adopted 
by  Scarlatti.  The  kettle-drums  now  come  into  use.  The 
works  of  Corelli  and  his  violinist  successors,  which  showed 
the  possibility  of  writing  for  strings,  undoubtedly  in- 
fluenced orchestral  writing. 

Bach  and  Handel. — We  now  come  to  the  period  of  Bach 
and  Handel,  each  distinct  in  methods,  the  latter  the  more 
immediately  influential  in  the  development  .of  the  orchestra, 
the  former's  principles  of  writing  in  the  polyphonic  style 
not  being  taken  up  until  after  years  by  Wagner  and  more 
recently  by  the  extreme  modern  composers  with  their  free 
polyphony.  In  a  Bach  score  each  instrument  had  an  inde- 
pendent part  to  sing,  and  was  treated  from  a  musical 
standpoint,  whereas  the  tendency  of  other  composers  was 
to  seek  figures  and  passages  which  should  be  characteristic 
of  the  instrument,  the  standpoint  of  effect.  This  particu- 
larly applies  to  the  wind  instruments.  Handel's  idea  seemed 
to  be  the  building  up  of  great  mass  effects,  his  style  par- 
took of  the  harmonic  rather  than  the  polyphonic.  He  used 
all  the  important  instruments  found  in  the  modern  or- 
chestra except  the  clarinet,  although  the  proportion  of  the 
wind-instruments  to  the  strings  is  greater,  due  to  the  rela- 
tively inferior  power  of  these  instruments  in  Handel's  time. 

Maydn  and  Mozart. — From  Handel  we  pass  to  the  first 
of  his  three  great  successors,  Haydn,  who  has  been  called 
the  "father  of  the  symphony,"  who  determined,  in  fact,  the 


338  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

course  of  orchestral  development.  And  we  should  not  over- 
look the  fact  before-mentioned,  namely,  that  the  professional 
violinists,  most  of  whom  were  also  directors  of  orchestras 
in  the  pay  of  great  princes,  were  testing  the  capacities  and 
resources  of  the  instruments  used.  In  the  ])erio(l  which 
Haydn  represents,  the  proportions  of  the  instruments  in  the 
orchestra  were  definitely  fixed  and  the  size  of  the  string 
band  became  relatively  greater,  the  'cello  coming  in  to 
greater  prominence  in  its  use  as  a  melody  instrument. 
Haydn's  last  symphony,  written  in  1795,  calls  for  two  flutes, 
two  oboes,  two  clarinets,  two  bassoons,  two  kettle  drums, 
and  the  usual  string  band.  This  was  the  combination  which 
Haydn  selected  as  the  most  useful  and  effective,  as  the  re- 
sult of  his  experience  as  a  conductor  for  many  years.  It 
was  to  Mozart  that  the  introduction  of  the  clarinet  into 
the  orchestra  is  due,  for  Haydn  did  not  employ  this  instru- 
ment in  his  earlier  works.  The  clarinet  began  to  take  an 
effective  form  about  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  yet  it 
was  not  until  the  19th  century  that  it  received  the  im- 
provements that  now  make  it  one  of  the  most  useful  instru- 
ments in  the  orchestra,  with  a  wonderfully  facile  technic 
and  correct  intonation.  The  greatest  of  these  changes  was 
the  application,  to  the  clarinet,  of  the  system  of  keys  and 
fingering  invented  by"  Theobald  Boehm  (1794-1881)  for  the 
flute.  In  addition  to  showing  the  value  of  the  clarinet  as 
an  instrument,  Mozart  pointed  the  way  to  some  uses  of  the 
trombone.  His  E-flat  Symphony  is  scored  for  one  flute, 
two  clarinets,  two  bassoons,  two  horns,  two  trumpets, 
tympani  and  strings ;  in  the  score  of  the  "Jupiter"  sym- 
phony, the  clarinet  does  not  appear. 

Beethoven  established  the  orchestra  as  "the  composer's 
instrument."  He  added  but  little  to  the  instruments  used 
but  he  took  the  resources  established  by  his  predecessors 
and  demonstrated  what  could  be  done  with  them.  Every 
group  of  instruments  was  used  with  more  detail  and  to 
produce  characteristic  effects  both  separately  and  in  com- 
bination. In  his  first  and  second  symphonies  he  uses  the 
same  orchestra:    two  flutes,  two  oboes,  two  clarinets,  two 


MODERN    WRITERS.  339 

bassoons,  two  horns,  two  trumpets,  tympani  and  strings ;  m 
the  "Eroica,"  a  third  horn  part  is  added ;  the  fourth  has 
the  same  orchestra  as  the  first  two,  except  that  one  flute  is 
dropped;  the  fifth  calls  for  piccolo,  two  flutes,  two  oboes, 
two  clarinets,  two  bassoons,  contra-bassoon,  two  horns,  two 
trumpets,  three  trombones,  tympani  and  strings ;  in  the 
sixth  he  uses  the  same  orchestra  as  in  the  fifth,  except  thaL 
he  drops  the  contra-bassoon  and  one  trombone;  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  the  orchestra  is  the  same  as  in  his  first 
and  second  symphonies.  In  the  ninth  (Choral  Symphony) 
he  calls  for  a  larger  orchestra:  piccolo,  two  flutes,  two 
oboes,  two  clarinets,  two  bassoons,  contra-bassoon,  four 
horns,  two  trumpets,  three  trombones,  tympani,  triangle, 
cymbals,  bass  drum  and  strings.  It  will  be  noted  that  Bee- 
thoven does  not  use  the  harp.  It  was  not  until  1820,  seven 
years  before  Beethoven's  death,  that  Erard  invented  the 
double-action  harp,  an  eflFective  and  a  playable  instrument. 
Berlioz,  Wagner  and  Richard  Strauss. — The  composer  who 
first  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  orchestral  instruments, 
their  distinctive  qualities,  separately  and  in  combinations, 
was  Berlioz,  who  gave  to  the  world  his  knowledge  in  his 
"Treatise  on  Instrumentation,"  published  in  1844.  Berlioz 
gave  to  every  one  of  his  works  a  more  or  less  distinctive 
quaHty  by  varying  the  composition  of  his  orchestra  instead 
of  using  the  conventional  combinations.  He  made  fre- 
quent use  of  the  harp,  bass  clarinet,  English  horn,  bass 
tuba,  besides  other  less  frequently  used  instruments.  He 
very  much  enlarged  the  scope  of  orchestral  music  by  the 
new  effects  he  devised.  Richard  Wagner,  in  his  great  music 
dramas,  makes  use  of  many  new  means  of  dramatic  mu- 
sical effects,  introducing  new  instruments,  enlarging  the 
various  families,  dividing  the  strings  into  eight  parts,  in- 
creasing the  number  of  brass  instruments,  giving  to  his 
scores  a  richness  of  power  and  a  sonorous  quality  unknown 
before  his  time.  Richard  Strauss  is,  today,  the  greatest 
master  of  the  technic  of  orchestral  writing.  His  tone-poems 
make  greater  demands  on  the  resources  of  the  instruments 
and  contain  effects  beyond  those  of  Wagner. 


340 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


Hector  Berlioz  (1803-1869)  was  the  son  of  a  French 
physician,  who  designed  him  for  his  own  profession.  But 
the  lad's  bent  for  music  was  so  strong  that  when  sent  to 
Paris  to  prepare  for  a  medical  degree,  he  spent  most  of  his 
time  in  going  to  the  opera  and  in  studying  the  scores  of  the 
masters.  Much  against  the  will  of  his  parents,  he  deter- 
mined to  give  up  medicine  and  entered  the  Conservatoire. 


Hectob  Berlioz. 


His  early  musical  training  had  been  far  from  thorough  and 
his  career  was  at  first  not  successful.  This  added  to  his 
father's  displeasure,  and  he  finally  withdrew  all  support 
from  his  son,  who,  rather  than  abandon  his  art,  struggled 
with  the  most  crushing  poverty  until  a  violent  illness 
brought  on  by  privation  reconciled  his  parents  to  his  choice 
of  a  profession.  After  several  unsuccessful  attempts,  he 
g^ained  the  great  Roman   Prize,  which  entitled  him   to  a 


BERLIOZ.  341 

period  of  study  in  Italy  and  Germany  at  the  cost  of  the 
State,  but  throughout  his  Hfe  he  battled  at  home  with 
adverse  and  discouraging  conditions,  artistic  and  domestic. 
Until  after  his  death  his  works  never  received  the  recogni- 
tion gladly  paid  them  in  foreign  countries,  where  he  made 
frequent  tours  for  the  purpose  of  producing  them.  His 
demand  for  exceptional  means  of  performance,  based  upon 
their  large  scope  and  previously  unheard-of  effects,  was 
ridiculed  in  France,  where  they  were  also  considered  dis- 
sonant and  bombastic ;  he  encountered  jealousy  and  intrigue 
at  every  turn  and  bore  them,  too,  in  no  patient  spirit. 

His  Important  Works. — As  a  winner  of  the  Roman  Prize, 
however,  he  had  a  claim  on  the  State.  Thus  his  great 
"Te  Deum,"  written  for  three  choruses,  soli,  and  orchestra, 
was  one  of  several  commissions  from  the  Government  and 
was  composed  for  the  opening  of  the  Exposition  of  1855. 
Another  similar  colossal  work  is  his  "Requiem,"  with  its 
four  small  orchestras  of  brass  stationed  at  the  corners  of 
the  principal  orchestra.  These  cross  and  re-cross  with 
thrilling  effect,  simulating  the  blowing  of  the  last  trump. 
His  most  popular  and  widely-known  work,  "The  Damna- 
tion of  Faust,"  a  dramatic  cantata  now  frequently  heard  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe,  failed  to  awaken  the  slightest 
interest  at  its  first  performance  in  1846  and  involved  the 
composer  heavily  in  debt.  His  enthusiasm  for  Shakespeare 
led  to  the  composition  of  what  some  consider  his  most  im- 
portant work,  "Romeo  and  Juliet,"  a  symphony  for  orches- 
tra, solo  voices  and  chorus.  Berlioz'  genius  was  essentially 
instrumental  and  symphonic  in  character ;  hence,  though 
he  composed  a  number  of  operas,  none  was  successful.  In- 
deed, the  failure  of  "Les  Troyens"  (The  Trojans),  the 
subject  of  which  was  taken  from  the  "^neid"  and  which 
he  intended  to  be  his  masterpiece,  was  his  death-blow. 

His  Genius  as  an  Orchestral  Composer. — Berlioz  was  the 
founder  of  the  modern  school  of  orchestration,  as  well  as 
the  pioneer  in  the  art  of  expressing  a  definite  program  in 
terms  of  absolute  music.  Like  his  great  contemporary, 
Wagner,  he  was  no  executant;    he  played  but  little  and, 


342  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC, 

curiously  enough,  only  such  insignificant  instruments  as 
the  flute,  flageolet,  and  guitar.  The  orchestra  was  his  in- 
strument and  no  one  has  ever  had  a  more  unerring  instinct 
for  its  capabilities  either  as  a  whole  or  in  its  component  parts. 
In  the  origination  of  weird,  unearthly  effects  he  had  been 
anticipated  by  Weber,  whom  he  greatly  admired ;  but  he 
went  beyond  him  in  devising  bold  and  daring  combinations, 
which  he  justified  by  the  end  in  view,  though  it  cannot  be 
said  that  a  refined  taste  always  finds  this  end  in  itself  justi- 
fiable. For  example,  in  the  last  movement  of  his  "Fantastic 
Symphony,"  he  pictures  an  execution  by  the  guillotine.  A 
company  of  witches  and  demons  dance  around  the  headless 
body  and  perform  a  burlesque  requiem — the  whole  sup- 
posed to  be  a  nightmare  suffered  by  an  artist  under  the  in- 
fluence of  opium.  Color  rather  than  outline,  thrilling  and 
novel  effects  of  sonority,  rhythmical  variety  and  animation, 
intensity  of  expression  and  dramatic  climax  are  the  prin- 
cipal characteristics  of  Berlioz'  music.  Yet  delicacy  and 
charm  are  by  no  means  lacking  in  his  works.  Irregular  in 
proportion  and  unequal  in  inspiration  as  they  frequently  are, 
they  undoubtedly  entitle  him  to  the  distinction  of  being  the 
greatest  composer  that  France  has  yet  produced. 

The  Music  of  the  Orchestra  includes  Symphonies,  Over- 
tures, Symphonic  Poems,  Tone-Poems  and  Suites  and  the 
Concerto  for  a  solo  instrument  with  orchestral  support. 
The  symphony  is  an  elaborated  sonata,  and  the  first  move- 
ment is  usually  constructed  on  the  principles  recognized 
under  the  term  Sonata-form ;  the  same  principles  are  used 
in  the  Overture,  which  consists  of  but  a  single  movement. 
Liszt,  in  his  efforts  in  the  program  music  style,  devised 
the  Symphonic  Poem,  which  aims  to  present  a  series  of 
emotional  pictures  in  the  Symphonic  style,  but  with  the 
various  movements  continuous.  He  advocated  deriving  all 
themes  from  a  common  source,  transforming  them  rhyth- 
mically as  needed  to  work  out  his  conception.  His  succes- 
sors in  this  style  of  music  still  use  the  thematic  methods 
devised  by  the  writers  in  the  true  symphonic  style,  but  are 
free  in  their  methods  of  construction  and  elaboration. 


lesson  helps.  343 

References, 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  articles  on 
the  Orchestra  and  the  various  instruments  used,  the  Sonata. 
Symphony,  Overture,  Suite,  etc.,  and  Sonata-Form. 

Henderson. — The  Orchestra  and  Orchestral  Music. 

Questions. 

Why  is  the  orchestra  the  greatest  means  for  musical  ex- 
pression ? 

Classify  the  instruments  used  in  the  orchestra. 

What  difference  is  there  in  the  combination  of  instrU' 
ments  in  the  modern  orchestra  and  in  the  first  attempts? 

How  did  the  opera  influence  the  development  of  the  or- 
chestra and  orchestral  music? 

Contrast  Bach  and  Handel.  Whose  methods  are  used 
today  to  the  greater  extent? 

What  did  Haydn  and  Mozart  contribute? 

What  did  Beethoven  contribute? 

Contrast  the  orchestra  used  by  the  composers  mentioned. 

Give  an  account  of  the  work  of  Berlioz  in  the  orchestral 
field. 

Give  an  account  of  the  great  writers  of  modern  times. 

What  form  is  the  basis  of  writing  for  the  orchestra? 

Suggestions  for  a  Review  of  Lessons  XVH  to  XXIV. 

Independent  research  on  the  part  of  pupils  is  essential 
to  real  mastery  of  a  subject.  The  following  topics  can  be 
used  as  subject?  for  short  essays  to  be  prepared  by  pupils. 
The  material  will  be  found  in  this  book  and  in  the  reference 
works  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  various  lessons. 

Lesson  XXV. — i.  The  Pianoforte  in  America.  2.  Piano- 
forte Makers  in  the  19th  Century.  3.  Points  of  difference 
between  the  early  Claviers  and  the  Modern  Piano. 

Lesson  XXVI. — i.  Comparison  between  the  Early  Ven- 
etian schools  of  Painting  and  Music.  2.  The  composers 
of  the  Early  Venetian  school.  3.  The  composers  of  the 
Later  Venetian  school.  4.  The  development  of  the  Science 
of  Thorough-Bass. 


344  thp:  history  of  music. 

Lesson  XXVII. — i.  Queen  Elizabeth  as  a  Patron  of  Art. 
2.  Characteristics  of  the  Early  French  Clavier  school.  3. 
Influence  of  the  Early  English  and  French  Clavier  schools 
on  subsequent  Writings. 

Lesson  XXVIII. — i.  German  character  as  reflected  in 
early  music.  2.  Comparison  of  Bach  and  Handel's  Clavier 
Works,  3.  Influence  exerted  by  the  Well-Tempered  Clavi- 
chord. 

Lesson  XXIX. — i.  Comparison  between  the  Polyphonic 
and  Harmonic  styles.  2.  Musical  influence  of  J.  S.  Bach's 
Children.  3.  The  First  Sonatas  compared  with  Modern 
Music. 

Lesson  XXX. — i.  German  appreciation  of  music  in 
Haydn's  time.  2.  Haydn  as  a  man.  3.  Haydn's  connection 
with  Mozart. 

Lesson  XXXL  —  i.  Mozart's  character.  2.  Mozart's 
struggles  with  poverty.  3.  Mozart's  contributions  to  form. 
4.  The  Viennese  school  of  this  period. 

Lesson  XXXII. — i.  Beethoven's  character  as  shown  in 
his  letters.  2.  Beethoven's  peculiarities.  3.  Beethoven  and 
his  contemporaries. 

Lesson  XXXIII. — i.  Beethoven's  manner  of  composing. 

2.  Beethoven's  love  of  nature.    3.  Effect  of  Beethoven  upon 
succeeding  composers. 

Lesson  XXXIV. — i.  The  points  of  superiority  of  the 
Violin  over  the  Viol.    2.  The  three  great  makers  of  violins. 

3.  Why  the  violin  is  called  the  King  of  Instruments. 
Lesson  XXXV. — i.  The  character  of  early  violin  music. 

2.  The  development  of  violin  playing  and  composition.     3. 
Arrange  the  great  players  in  their  respective  schools. 

Lesson  XXXVI. — i.  Classify  the  instruments  of  the  or- 
chestra. 2.  Give  a  sketch  of  the  development  of  the  or- 
chestra, instruments  added,  etc.  3.  Contrast  Beethoven's 
work  with  that  of  his  predecessors  and  successors.  4.  What 
is  the  form  of  a  Symphony  ?  In  what  respects  does  the  form 
used  by  modern  composers  differ  from  that  of  the  classical 
symphony  ? 


LESSON  XXXVII. 

The  Romantic  Opera.     Weber,  Spohr,  Marschxer. 

The  Eomantic  Movement.— The  revolutionary  spirit  whicli 
arose  in  Europe  toward  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  had 
its  counterpart  in  a  similar  intellectual  and  artistic  reaction, 
commonly  known  as  the  Romantic  Movement.  In  Litera- 
ture, this  movement  was  led  by  France;  in  Music,  by 
Germany.  Briefly  described,  it  consisted  in  casting  aside 
the  classical  traditions  which  the  Renaissance  had  im.posed 
upon  art  in  general  and  in  a  substitution  of  themes  and  a 
treatment  more  in  consonance  with  the  atmosphere  of  free- 
dom which  had  inspired  such  momentous  social  and  poli- 
tical changes. 

Its  Effect  on  Music. — The  musician  also  felt  the  influence 
of  the  general  unrest.  In  seeking  new  modes  of  expression, 
he  rose  to  a  consciousness  of  independence  both  as  man  and 
artist;  he  refused  longer  to  occupy  the  position  of  an 
upper  servant  which  had  been  decreed  him  by  court  and 
nobility.  Mozart  marked  the  passing  of  the  old  order  of 
things  by  his  indignant  rejection  of  the  humiliating  condi- 
tions of  service  under  the  haughty  Archbishop  of  Salz- 
burg, only  remembered  by  later  generations  through  his 
connection  with  the  musician  he  treated  so  contemptuously. 
Heretofore  music  had  been  the  privileged  entertainment 
of  the  great  and  wealthy.  Like  other  privileges,  it  was  to 
pass  into  the  possession  of  the  people,  hitherto  shut  out 
from  its  enjoyment  save  in  the  Church.  It  was  to  draw 
inspiration  from  a  rich  store  of  Folk-lore  and  poetry  here- 
tofore disregarded  by  the  scholar  and  the  musician,  but 
soon  to  be  recognized  as  a  national  heritage  of  high  import ; 
it  was  to  create  new  forms  instead  of  being  dependent  on 
time-worn  formulae  which  were  repressing  growth  and  de- 
velopment. 

(345) 


34t^  THli:    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

The  Romantic  Opera. — The  Romantic  Movement  had  the 
effect  of  finally  banishing  from  the  stage  the  characters  of 
classical  mythology,  the  heroes  and  personages  of  antiquity 
who  had  been  thought  alone  worthy  of  representation  by 
the  poets  and  savants  who  had  thus  far  prepared  the  texts 
for  operas.  In  the  romantic  opera  their  places  were  taken 
by  figures  of  legend  or  chivalry,  elves  and  spirits  of  earth 
Dr  air;  the  action  paid  no  regard  to  the  unities  of  time  and 
place ;  it  was  brisk  and  animated  and  the  supernatural 
played  an  important  part  in  it.  The  music,  instead  of  be- 
ing governed  by  the  restraints  of  definite  forms,  adapted 
itself  to  the  varying  exigencies  of  the  drama;  the  sharp 
division  between  the  recitative  and  the  aria  was  softened 
by  the  introduction  of  the  Scena,  a  peculiarly  effective 
mingling  of  the  features  of  both;  the  overture  became  an 
integral  part  of  the  whole  by  the  use  of  themes  associated 
with  leading  dramatic  situations.  The  orchestra  not  only 
supplied  an  harmonic  and  a  rhythmically  interesting  accom- 
paniment but  its  power  of  independent  expression  was  enor- 
mously enlarged ;  it  became,  so  to  speak,  one  of  the  Dram- 
atis PersoncB  and  vied  with  the  singers  in  indicating  psy- 
chological and  dramatic  crises.  This  was  largely  due  to 
the  development  of  a  new  phase  of  instrumentation,  per- 
haps the  most  striking  detail  of  the  Romantic  school — ^that 
of  novel  and  original  combinations  of  instruments  to  pro- 
duce varying  and  expressive  shades  of  tone  color.  Here- 
tofore the  orchestra  had  been  considered  in  the  main  in  its 
more  obvious  divisions ;  sonority  and  beauty  of  tone  had 
been  the  chief  aim  of  the  classical  composers.  Carl  Maria 
von  Weber  (1786-1826)  was  the  first  to  utilize  the  indi- 
vidual timbres  of  orchestral  instruments  to  secure  effects 
of  a  weird,  unearthly  character. 

Weber  and  the  Romantic  Opera. — In  his  Der  Freischiita 
(The  Freeshooter)  we  first  find  the  union  of  all  these  char- 
acteristics. Hence  Weber  is  rightfully  considered  the 
founder  of  the  romantic  opera;  but  it  would  be  a  mistake 
to  assume  that  he  was  the  originator  of  all  its  features. 
These  had  been  long  in  the  air.     In  Haydn,  the  works  of 


CaMi  Mama  von  Webeb. 


348  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Mozart  and  Beethoven,  in  the  ballads  of  Loewe,  the  songs 
of  Schubert,  unmistakable  romantic  traits  can  often  be 
found,  but  they  are  embodied  in  established  forms.  Weber, 
however,  brought  together  the  qualities  now  associated 
with  the  term  romantic  in  music,  and  in  applying  them  to 
the  drama  freed  them  from  the  restrictions  of  a  fixed  mu- 
sical structure. 

Influence  of  "Der  Freischuetz." — The  effect  of  Der  Frei- 
schiits  on  its  production  in  Berlin  in  182 1  vv^s  instanta- 
neous. The  story  of  the  hunter's  recourse  to  unholy  arts 
in  order  to  win  success  in  the  chase,  of  his  rescue  from 
Satanic  power  and  the  final  triumph  of  good  over  evil ;  the 
music,  fresh,  vivid,  essentially  national  in  color,  appealed  to 
the  people  to  whom  the  legend  was  well  known.  It  meant 
the  birth  of  German  opera,  German  alike  in  drama  and 
music;  it  gave  the  final  blow  to  the  supremacy  of  foreign 
influences  in  Germany.  This  success  at  first,  however,  was  , 
confined  almost  entirely  to  the  people.  Critics  and  musi-  - 
cians  generally  could  not  reconcile  themselves  to  its  min- 
gling of  styles ;  the  supernatural  element  seemed  to  them 
exaggerated,  the  introduction  of  the  Folk-song  wanting  in 
dignity.  Only  the  greatest  of  them  all,  Beethoven,  deaf 
and  cynical  as  he  was,  realized  the  signification  of  Der 
Freischiitz  as  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  for  German  art. 
He  said  to  Rochlitz:  "Weber  should  now  write  operas — 
one  after  the  other  without  hesitation." 

Euryanthe.  —  Weber's  next  opera  was  Bury  ant  he,  pro- 
duced in  1823  in  Vienna.  In  this  he  was  hampered  by  a  , 
text  of  more  than  doubtful  merit  and  lacking  the  national  1 
element  which  had  been  so  strong  a  factor  in  Der  Frei- 
schiits.  The  story  is  laid  in  the  medieval  chivalric  epoch 
and  strongly  resembles  Shakespeare's  Cymbeline.  He  also 
ventured  upon  an  innovation  which  was  not  in  favor  with 
the  German  public :  he  set  it  to  music  throughout,  the  place 
of  the  dialogue  customary  in  German  opera  being  taken 
by  accompanied  recitative.  Euryanthe  and  Spohr's  Jes- 
sonda,  which  appeared  several  months  before  the  former, 
were  the  first  German  operas  in  this  style  since  Schiitz's 


RECITATIVE    AND   DIALOGUE.  349 

Dafne.  This  and  its  confused  plot  kept  Euryanthe  from 
the  popular  success  achieved  by  Der  Freischiitz,  yet  it  con- 
tains some  of  Weber's  most  thrilling-  inspirations,  and  is 
the  direct  prototype  of  the  modern  music  drama. 

Oberon. — In  Oberon  (1826),  composed  for  London  to  an 
English  text,  Weber  returned  to  his  former  manner,  though 
somewhat  against  his  will.  He  found  the  English  opera 
much  the  same  as  in  Purcell's  time,  practically  a  play  with 
music  as  an  incidental  feature  rather  than  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  drama.  He  intended  casting  Oberon  into  a 
larger  mould,  reducing  the  dialogue  and  adding  to  the 
music,  but  this  was  prevented  by  his  premature  death  in 
London  two  months  after  its  production. 

Recitative  and  Dialogue.  —  The  chilling  effect  of  alter- 
nating speech  and  song  has  already  been  spoken  of  in  con- 
nection with  the  English  opera.  At  that  time,  both  Eng- 
lish and  German  taste  was  against  the  use  of  recitative 
in  the  narrative  parts  of  an  opera.  The  recitativo  secco, 
which  it  will  be  remembered  is  a  recitative  supported  only 
by  chords  on  the  harpsichord  or  piano,  sometimes  accom- 
panied with  a  single  stringed  instrument,  has  never  met 
with  favor  outside  of  Italy,  where  its  intonations  nearly 
approach  the  half-singing  inflections  of  Italian  speech.  The 
exclusive  use  of  accompanied  recitative — that  is,  the  reci- 
tative accompanied  by  the  full  orchestra,  however,  delays 
the  action  and  moreover  appears  weighty  and  overwrought 
unless  applied  to  subjects  of  an  elevated  or  heroic  char- 
acter. In  Germany  and  England  the  desire  to  understand 
clearly  the  dramatic  movement  led  to  the  retention  of 
dialogue  in  all  operas.  In  France  a  distinction  was  made 
between  operas  with  dialogue  and  operas  with  recitative 
only.  The  first  is  called  Opera  Comique,  originally  an  off- 
shoot from  the  Italian  Opera  Buifa,  in  which  the  recitativo 
secco  was  replaced  by  dialogue.  Later  the  term  assumed  a 
technical  meaning  by  which  it  was  applied  to  all  operas 
containing  spoken  dialogue  whether  their  subjects  were 
comic  or  tragic,  in  contradistinction  to  what  is  known  as 
Grand  Opera,  in  which  the  accompanied  recitative  is  used 
exclusively. 


350  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSTC. 

The  Melodrama. — The  so-called  melodrama  is  a  compro- 
mise between  the  dialogue  and  the  recitative.  In  this  the 
performer  recites  in  the  speaking  voice  while  the  orchestra 
supplies  an  accompaniment  which  seeks  to  intensify  the 
dramatic  situation.  This  device  originated  in  Germany  and 
has  found  the  most  favor  from  German  composers.  It 
was  first  employed  by  Georg  Benda  (i  721- 1795)  in  a  reci- 
tation, Ariadne  in  Naxos  (1744),  which  created  much  in- 
terest. Two  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  the  melo- 
drama are  to  be  found  in  the  grave-digging  scene  in  Fidelio 
and  in  the  incantation  scene  in  Der  Freischiitz.  But  how- 
ever effective  its  occasional  use  may  be,  the  ear  suffers  from 
the  inevitable  dissonance  between  the  fixed  pitches  of  the 
musical  scale  and  the  natural  inflections  of  the  speaking 
voice.  This  is  now  so  generally  recognized  that  it  has  been 
practically  ignored  by  modern  composers  in  their  works  for 
the  stage. 

Spohr  and  the  Eomantic  Opera.  —  Ludwig  Spohr  (1784- 
1859),  Germany's  greatest  violinist  and  a  composer  of  emi- 
nence in  many  fields,  wrote  a  number  of  operas.  Of  these, 
Faust  and  Jessonda  stand  first  in  showing  a  vein  of  genuine 
romanticism,  albeit  they  lack  the  Folk-element  which 
brought  Weber's  music  so  close  to  the  hearts  of  the  peo- 
ple. Full  of  beauty  as  they  undoubtedly  are,  like  all  of 
Spohr's  music  they  are  weakened  by  the  constant  recur- 
rence of  certain  mannerisms,  such  as  chromatic  progressions 
of  a  persistent  type,  enharmonic  modulations,  the  over- 
frequent  use  of  diminished  intervals.  Spohr  exercised  a 
strong  influence  in  favor  of  the  new  direction  on  account 
of  his  high  position  as  the  most  esteemed  composer  and 
performer  of  the  day.  His  significance  in  the  romantic 
movement  consists  in  his  being,  as  it  were,  an  intermediary 
between  the  late  classical  period  represented  by  Beethoven 
and  the  modern  music  drama.  He  knew  Beethoven  in 
Vienna,  and  in  his  latter  days,  when  director  of  the  opera 
in  Cassel,  did  his  utmost  to  introduce  Wagoner's  early  operas 
to  the  German  public. 


THE   SPIELOPER.  35I 

Marschner,  Weber's  Successor.  —  Weber's  legitimate  suc- 
cessor in  the  romantic  opera  was  Heinrich  Marschner  (1795- 
1861).  He  had  been  associated  with  Weber  as  assistant 
conductor  at  the  opera  in  Dresden,  and  a  strong  friendship 
existed  between  them,  Weber's  influence,  however,  was 
wide  and  far-reaching;  it  extended  beyond  the  opera. 
Marschner's  sphere  was  practically  confined  to  the  stage, 
which  he  enriched  with  a  series  of  strongly  characterized 
works  mainly  of  a  gloomy,  uncanny  nature.  He  shows  but 
little  of  the  genial  art  with  which  Weber  avails  himself  of 
the  supernatural  merely  as  a  background  for  the  doing  and 
striving  of  his  characters,  and  thus  never  compromises  the 
human  interest  they  have  for  us.  Marschner  makes  it  the 
salient  characteristic  of  his  strongest  works.  In  these  his 
principal  Dramatis  Personce  are  demons  and  evil  spirits  who 
tempt  and  torment  the  innocent  and  loving.  His  first  ro- 
mantic opera  was  Der  Vampyr  (1825)  composed  to  a  text 
prepared  from  Byron's  poem,  "Lord  Ruthven,"  which  is 
founded  upon  a  Scotch  legend.  Notwithstanding  the  re- 
pulsive nature  of  the  subject,  its  powerful  treatment  brought 
it  immediate  success  in  Germany  and  a  little  later  in  Eng- 
land. It  was  followed  by  Der  Templar  tind  die  Jildin  (The 
Templar  and  the  Jewess),  a  version  of  Scott's  "Ivanhoe." 
This,  however,  met  with  less  success  than  Der  Vampyr  or 
its  successor,  Hans  Heiling,  Marschner's  masterpiece. 

The  Spieloper. — The  Romantic  school  had  a  strong  in- 
fluence in  the  development  of  a  form  known  as  the  Spieloper 
(literally  play-opera),  which  occupies  a  place  between  the 
works  we  have  been  considering  and  the  Singspiel.  As 
thoroughly  German  as  the  latter,  it  shows  more  finish  and 
greater  elaboration  of  musical  effect.  Though  essentially 
romantic  in  the  freedom  of  its  scope  and  choice  of  means, 
its  real  sphere  is  neither  the  heroic  nor  the  mystic;  it  con- 
cerns itself  rather  with  the  lighter  aspects  of  life,  those 
which  require  no  exalted  powers  of  imagination  or  wide 
culture  to  appreciate — humor,  good  cheer,  the  merriment 
and  mirth  of  the  people  in  holiday  mood.  Albert  Lortzing 
(1803- 185 1 )  is  accepted  as  the  creator  of  this  type,  of  which 


352  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

his  most  popular  opera,  Zar  iind  Zimniermann    (Czar  and 
the  Carpenter),  is  the  best  known  example. 

Influence  of  the  Romantic  Opera. — The  value  of  the  ap- 
plication of  all  the  resources  of  music  to  tlie  unfettered 
delineation  of  feeling  and  emotion  in  all  their  phases  in- 
augurated by  the  romantic  opera  can  hardly  be  over-esti- 
mated. From  the  opera  it  has  won  its  way  into  absolute 
music,  creating  new  and  original  forms.  The  change  it 
has  wrought  in  the  progress  and  development  of  the  art 
in  general  is  only  second  to  the  revolution  occasioned 
.by  the  birth  of  the  opera  itself,  three  centuries  ago.  The 
impulse  of  the  romantic  movement  in  music  is  far  from 
being  exhausted  at  the  present  day.  On  the  contrary,  it 
seems  to  have  gathered  strength  and  if  it  has  reached  its 
culmination,  as  some  would  have  us  believe,  the  signs  are 
not  yet  apparent  to  an  unprejudiced  observer. 

Questions. 
What  was  the  Romantic  Movement  ?    Its  effect  on  music  ? 
Tell  about  the  Romantic  Opera. 
Who  was  the  founder  of  the  Romantic  Opera? 
Give  an  account  of  Weber's  operas. 
Contrast  the  use  of  Recitative  and  Dialogue  in  opera. 
What  is  the  Melodrama? 
Give  an  account  of  Spohr  and  his  work. 
Give  an  account  of  Marschner  and  his  work. 
What  is  the  Spieloper? 
What  was  the  influence  of  the  Romantic  Opera? 


LESSON  XXXVIII. 

The  French  School  of  the  XIXtii  Cextuuy. 

French  Schools  of  Opera. — As  already  explained.  Freiici 
opera  is  divided  into  two  styles,  known  as  Opera  Coniique 
and  Grand  Opera,  acco'-ding  to  the  use  of  dialogue  or  reci- 
tative. Not  that  this  is  the  only  difference.  The  Grand 
Opera  is  naturally  adapted  to  subjects  of  a  large  or  heroi'. 
scope;  the  Opera  Comique,  like  the  Spicloper  in  Germany, 
to  lighter  episodes  of  a  romantic  or  humorous  nature.  As 
will  be  seen,  however,  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  the 
latter  form  is  adopted  for  serious  subjects,  owing  lo  the 
fact  that  it  is  generally  easier  for  a  composer  to  hnd  ac- 
ceptance at  the  Opera  Comique  than  at  the  Grand  Opera. 
The  youthful  composer  or  the  one  who  has  not  yet  acquired 
a  name  for  himself  is  expected  to  win  his  spurs  in  the  former 
before  attempting  to  enter  the  latter.  Hence,  even  if  his 
work  is  somber  or  tragic  in  character  he  often  finds  it  ad- 
visable to  cast  it  into  the  lighter  form  for  the  sake  of 
having  it  produced. 

The  Opera  Comique. — The  Opera  Comique  had  its  origin 
in  the  introduction  of  the  Opera  Buffa  in  Paris  by  an  Italian 
company  about  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century,  which  led 
to  the  Gluck-Piccini  controversy.  Pergolesi's  La  Serva 
Padrona  in  particular  awakened  great  admiration  and 
brought  about  the  creation  of  a  sim'.lar  type  of  French 
opera.  It  was  at  first  hardly  'more  than  an  elaboration  of 
the  already  existing  vaudeville,  or  play  with  songs.  fVancois 
Philidor  (1726- 1795)  and  Andr^  Gr^try  (1741-1813)  were 
its  founders.  Grace  and  simplicity,  scrupulous  adaptation 
of  the  music  to  the  clearness  of  diction  always  demanded 
by  French  taste  were  its  distinguishing  characteristics, 

(353) 


354  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Its  Development. — Etienne  Mehul  (1763-1817),  a  pupil  of 
Gluck,  gave  it  a  larger  musical  development  and  a  greater 
depth  of  dramatic  feeling.  His  Joseph  (1807),  founded  on 
Biblical  history,  is  a  classic  of  this  school.  Its  dignity,  its 
severe  and  noble  style  won  less  cordial  recognition  in  France 
than  in  Germany ;  a  generation  later  it  was  to  exercise  a 
decisive  influence  on  the  future  creator  of  the  music  drama. 
It  was  through  a  performance  of  Joseph  that  Richard  Wag- 
ner, then  director  of  the  opera  in  Riga,  first  felt  inspired 
to  battle  against  the  empty  conventionalities  of  the  operatic 
stage.  Mehul's  enlargement  of  the  Opera  Comique  was 
carried  on  by  Cherubini,  who  through  the  ill-will  of  Na- 
poleon found  the  doors  of  the  Academic  de  Musique,  the 
technical  title  of  the  Grand  Opera,  closed  against  him. 
Even  his  greatest  tragic  opera,  Medee  (Medea),  was  pro- 
duced (1797)  as  an  opera  comique  without  recitative  and 
ballet,  the  latter  being  also  reserved  exclusively  for  Grand 
Opera.  Thus  it  often  happened  that  there  was  little,  in 
many  cases  no  intrinsic  difference  between  the  music  of  the 
two  schools. 

The  Typical  Opera  Comique. — There  was,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  development  of  a  type  more  closely  corresponding 
to  the  original  scheme  of  the  Opera  Comique.  Strongly 
influenced  by  the  romantic  tendencies  of  the  day,  its  ro- 
manticism by  no  means  resembles  that  of  the  German 
school  as  represented  by  Weber  and  his  followers.  This, 
in  its  appeal  to  the  deeper  emotions  by  the  idealization  of 
nature  and  recourse  to  the  supernatural,  is  thoroughly  alien 
to  the  Gallic  temperament,  and  had  no  appreciable  effect 
on  French  composers.  Gaiety  and  humor,  freshness  of  in- 
vention, lightness  of  touch,  elegance  and  finish  characterize 
the  true  Opera  Comique.  Its  pathos  never  sinks  below  a 
certain  sentiment  which  is  skilfully  used  rather  for  the 
sake  of  contrast  than  from  any  persistent  attempt  at  awaken- 
ing the  more  somber  feelings.  The  singer  and  the  actor 
both  meet  with  consideration;  the  former  by  sparkling 
melodies,  expressive  and  grateful  to  sing,  not  over-burdened 
with  the  technical  difficulties  in  which  the  Italian  school 


THE   FRENCH    OPERA    COMIQUE.  355 

abounds;  the  latter  by  a  drama  furnishing  piquant  situa- 
tions, seasoned  with  wit  and  interesting  in  itself  as  a  play. 

Boieldieu,  its  Founder. — As  Mehul  gave  the  impulse  to 
the  graver,  more  dignified  style,  so  Francois  Boieldieu 
(1775-1834)  laid  the  foundation  of  the  typical  Opera  Com- 
ique,  the  most  original  and  essentially  national  French  oper- 
atic form.  His  Jean  de  Paris  (John  of  Paris)  and  La 
Dame  Blanche  (The  White  Lady)  placed  him  at  the  head 
of  this  school.  The  latter  in  particular,  based  on  a  curious 
combination  of  situations  taken  from  two  of  Scott's  novels, 
"The  Monastery"  and  "Guy  Mannering,"  has  been  sung 
the  world  over  and  still  remains  an  unsurpassed  example  of 
the  Opera  Comique  in  its  best  estate. 

Auber. — The  most  prolific  composer  in  this  style  was 
Daniel  Auber  (i  782-1 871).  Though  he  began  as  an  ama- 
teur and  after  years  spent  in  other  pursuits,  he  outlived  all 
his  early  contemporaries  and  became  its  most  widely  known 
representative.  With  one  exception,  to  be  noticed  later,  his 
works  reveal  the  salient  characteristics  of  the  school — 
freshness  and  melodic  charm,  finesse  of  rhythm  and  in- 
strumentation, delicacy  and  refinement  rather  than  power 
and  depth.  His  most  popular  opera,  Fra  Diavolo  (1830), 
has  been  sung  on  all  stages  and  in  almost  all  languages. 
Others  less  known  but  equally  meritorious  are  Le  Maqon 
(The  Masoi:  and  the  Locksmith),  Le  Domino  Noir  (The 
Black  Domino)  and  Les  Diamants  de  la  Couronne  (The 
Crown  Diamonds.) 

He'rold  and  Adam. — Louis  Herold  (1791-1833),  as  a  pupil 
of  Mehul,  inclines  to  a  more  serious  style.  His  Zampa  con- 
tains strongly  romantic  features  which  made  it  more  suc- 
cessful in  Germany  than  the  melodious  Le  Pre  aux  Clercs 
(The  Clerks'  Meadow — a  noted  duelling  ground  in  Paris 
during  the  17th  century),  though  in  France  this  vies  with 
La  Dame  Blanche  in  the  distinction  of  being  the  most  pop- 
ular Opera  Comique  in  the  repertory.  Though  less  signifi- 
cant than  any  of  the  foregoing,  Adolphe  Adam  (1803-1856), 
the  composer  of  Le  Postilion  de  Longjumeau  (The  Postilion 
of  Longjumeau),  deserves  mention  for  the  grace  and  fluency 


356  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

of  his  melodies,  albeit  they  show  a  decline  in  character  and 
style  which  prefigures  the  decadent  school  of  the  Opera 
Bouffe  (burlesque  opera). 

Opera  Bouffe. — The  attentive  observer  can  hardly  fail  to 
perceive  that  the  opera  as  appealing  to  the  people  at  large 
more  than  any  other  form  of  music  is  peculiarly  susceptible 
to  social  and  political  influences.  The  Opera  Bouflfe  being 
a  degenerate  ofif-shoot  from  the  Opera  Comique,  it  is  no 
mere  accident  that  the  period  of  its  most  extended  pop- 
ularity coincided  with  the  extravagance  and  folly  of  the 
Second  Empire.  As  a  distinct  type  it  is  due  to  Jacques 
Offenbach  (1819-1880),  a  German  by  birth,  who  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  taste  of  the  time  by  turning  his  attention  to 
the  parody  of  the  classical  and  mythological  subjects  which 
had  furnished  material  for  the  early  operas.  Frivolous  and 
mocking  in  text,  sprightly  and  vivacious  in  melody  and 
rhythm,  his  operettas  possess  undoubted  piquancy  and  an 
effervescent  style  which  for  a  time  intoxicated  the  public. 
Their  vogue  was  happily  broken  by  a  series  of  light  operas 
of  much  more  worth.  Of  these,  Les  Cloches  de  Corneville, 
known  to  Americans  as  "The  Chimes  of  Normandy,"  by 
Uobert  Planquette  (1840-1903)  is  the  best  example. 

The  Influence  of  the  Opera  Comique. — The  Opera  Com- 
ique, as  founded  by  Boieldieu  and  continued  by  Auber  and 
Herold,  bears  a  distinctively  national  character  to  a  much 
greater  degree  than  the  more  cosmopolitan  Grand  Opera. 
Unlike  this,  its  development  was  entirely  due  to  native  com- 
posers who  gave  it  the  thoroughly  Gallic  impress  of  spirit, 
vivacity,  and  truth  to  nature  which  carried  it  triumphantly 
through  all  the  theatres  of  Europe.  Thus  it  served  to 
counteract  in  part  the  reactionary  tendency  of  Italian  opera. 
In  Paris,  as  elsewhere,  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th 
century  Italian  influences  were  very  powerful ;  Rossini's 
works  and  those  of  his  imitators  had  the  undesirable  eflfect 
of  reviving  in  a  modernized  form  the  conventionalized  opera 
of  the  18th  century,  the  chief  object  of  which  was  the  dis- 
play of  the  singer.  The  Opera  Comique,  though  limited  to 
the  lighter  phases  of  the  drama,  performed  a  service  of  no 


GRAND    OPERA.  357 

small  value  in  upholding  a  standard  of  legitimate  musical 
expression  at  a  time  when  the  allurements  of  florid  song 
were  obscuring  the  dramatic  ideals  which  Gluck  had  estab- 
lished at  the  cost  of  so  much  labor  and  effort. 

Grand  Opera. — About  the  same  time,  important  changes 
were  impending  in  Grand  Opera,  though  these  were  more 
in  the  nature  of  a  development  from  the  type  founded  by 
Lully  and  afterward  enlarged  by  Rameau,  Gluck  and  Spon- 
tini  than  a  revolution  such  as  Weber  and  his  followers  had 
effected  in  Germany.  They  were,  however,  the  outcome  of 
the  same  romantic  influences  modified  by  the  characteristic 
French  adherence  to  established  form.  A  grand  opera  ac- 
cording to  tradition  must  have  five  acts,  consisting  of  arias, 
ensembles,  choruses,  etc.,  connected  by  recitatives,  with  a 
ballet  in  one  or  two  of  the  middle  acts,  generally  the  second 
and  fourth. 

Its  Change  of  Style. — Auber's  La  Muette  de  Portici  (The 
Dumb  Girl  of  Portici — known  also  as  Masaniello),  pro- 
duced at  the  Academic  de  Musique  in  1828,  formed  the 
point  of  departure  for  the  new  style.  Though  it  held  to 
the  traditional  form  of  Grand  Opera,  it  was  in  spirit,  theme 
and  treatment  a  startling  change  from  the  ordinarily  genial 
works  of  this  composer,  characterized  as  it  was  by  a  force 
and  fire,  a  vigor  and  decision  which  he  had  never  shown 
before  and  was  never  to  show  again.  It  marks  the  be- 
ginning of  the  modern  historical  opera,  the  complete  aban- 
donment of  classical  and  ancient  history  as  the  only  ap- 
propriate material  for  Grand  Opera.  The  people  were 
brought  upon  the  stage  not  as  slaves  or  as  meekly  acqui- 
escing in  the  will  of  those  in  authority,  but  as  insurrection- 
ists demanding  rights  of  which  they  had  been  defrauded. 
The  story  of  the  Neapolitan  fisherman  leading  his  comrades 
into  rebellion  against  their  tyrannical  rulers  had  a  powerful 
eflfect  in  the  agitated  state  of  political  affairs  which  cul- 
minated in  the  revolutions  of  1830.  It  is  significant  that  a 
performance  of  La  Muette  de  Portici  immediately  preceded 
the  riots  in  Brussels,  which  in  that  year  resulted  in  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Dutch  from  Belgium.    Rossini's  William  Tell, 


358 


THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


which  followed  in  1829,  manifested  precisely  the  same  ten- 
dencies, musically  as  well  as  dramatically.  Both  were 
destined  to  be  cast  into  the  shade  by  the  works  of  a  third 
composer  who  gave  the  French  grand  opera  a  style  which 
practically  dictated  conditions  on  all  stages  for  half  a  century 
and  is  still  not  without  influence. 


GiACOMO  Metebbeeb. 


Meyerbeer.  —  This    composer    was    Giacomo    Meyerbeer 

(1791-1864),  German  by  birth  and  early  education,  Italian 
by  training  in  more  mature  years,  and  finally  French  by 
adoption.  A  juvenile  pianist  of  great  promise,  he  studied 
with  Clementi ;  he  went  through  a  severe  course  of  fugue 
and  counterpoint  with  Zelter,  the  teacher  of  Mendelssohn; 
in  composition  he  was  a  fellow-student  with  Weber  under 
the  famous  Abbe  Vogler.     In  Vienna  he  knew  Beethoven 


MEYERBEER.  359 

and  was  advised  by  Salieri  to  study  in  Italy,  where  he  wrote 
a  number  of  ItaHan  operas  after  the  style  of  Rossini.  In 
1826,  he  went  to  Paris,  the  Mecca  of  all  opera  composers, 
with  the  design  of  making  himself  familiar  with  the  condi- 
tions of  Grand  Opera. 

His  First  Grand  Opera. — The  result  of  his  studies  was 
Robert  le  Diahle  (Robert  the  Devil)  produced  in  183 1. 
This  created  a  veritable  sensation.  Nothing  of  so  compre- 
hensive a  st^de  had  been  seen  or  heard  before.  Meyerbeer's 
cosmopolitan  education,  his  receptive  rather  than  original 
mind,  enabled  him  to  combine  the  outward  characteristics 
at  least  of  the  three  schools — French,  German,  Italian — 
as  no  one  had  ever  attempted.  The  story  of  the  arch-enemy 
of  mankind  seeking  to  ensnare  a  son  by  an  earthly  mother 
into  sharing  his  lost  condition,  the  struggle  between  the 
powers  of  good  and  evil  for  the  mastery  of  the  tempted  soul 
gave  full  scope  to  such  an  amalgamation  of  styles.  The 
ballet  and  spectacular  effects  of  LuUy,  the  supernaturalism 
of  Weber,  the  roulades  of  Rossini  were  all  brought  together 
with  an  art  that  dazzled  and  intoxicated  an  admiring  public. 

His  Other  Grand  Operas. — Five  years  later  Robert  was 
followed  by  Les  Huguenots  (The  Huguenots),  which 
achieved  a  still  greater  success,  and  is  the  one  opera  of 
Meyerbeer  which  continues  to  hold  its  own  against  the 
encroachments  of  time.  In  one  or  two  episodes  of  Le 
Prophete  (The  Prophet),  which  was  produced  in  1849,  the 
composer  reached  the  highest  level  of  his  creative  activity, 
notwithstanding  the  manifest  artificiality  of  his  scheme. 
His  last  work,  L'Africaine  (The  African),  was  brought  out 
the  year  after  his  death  and  like  the  others  owed  its  success 
to  a  skilful  mingling  of  all  the  elements,  musical,  spectac- 
ular, and  dramatic,  which  go  to  make  up  this  type  of  opera. 
His  L'£toiIe  du  Nord  (Star  of  the  North)  and  Le  Pardon 
de  Plocrmel  (better  known  as  Dinorah)  were  composed  for 
the  Opera  Comique. 

Influence  of  Meyerbeer. — Meyerbeer  so  held  the  public  in 
his  grip  that  other  composers  of  Grand  Opera  gained  but 
slight  attention  during  his  lifetime.     Only  Jacques  Halevy 


360  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

(1799-1862)  was  able  to  meet  him  on  equal  terms  in  this 
field  with  La  Juive  (The  Jewess),  in  whicii  he  shows  the 
earnest  spirit  of  his  master  Cherubini.  Though  Meyer- 
beer's watchword  was  success  at  any  cost  and  his  aim  to 
assure  it  by  the  accumulation  of  cunningly  devised  sensa- 
tions rather  than  through  the  innate  power  of  his  music, 
his  works  had  a  powerful  and,  on  the  whole,  a  beneficial  in- 
fluence on  the  course  of  modern  dramatic  music.  They 
placed  living,  palpitating  beings  on  the  stage  instead  of  the 
cold  abstractions  of  mythology  and  antiquity ;  the  singer 
was  forced  to  impersonate  as  well  as  to  sing.  His  insistence 
on  all  means  of  expression — vocal,  instrumental,  and  scenic 
— though  often  exaggerated  and  fatal  to  purity  of  style,  led 
to  an  extension  of  technical  ability  in  all  these  directions, 
and  prepared  the  way  for  a  master  of  greater  power  and 
higher  aims.  It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  Richard  Wag- 
ner frankly  modeled  his  Rienzi  (1842)  after  Les  Huguenots, 
and  that  Meyerbeer  in  Le  Prophete  shows  plainly  the  in- 
fluence of  this  work  by  his  German  contemporary. 

Questions. 

What  two  styles  are  found  in  French  opera? 

Tell  about  the  origin  of  Opera  Comique. 

Tell  about  the  development  of  Opera  Comique. 

Describe  the  typical  opera  comique. 

Mention  the  prominent  composers  in  this  form  and  their 
work. 

Describe  Opera  BoufTe. 

What  composers  were  prominent  in  this  form? 

What  was  the  influence  of  the  Opera  Comique  ? 

What  was  the  established  form  of  Grand  Opera  ? 

Who  contributed  to  a  change  of  style?  What  were  the 
changes  ? 

Give  an  account  of  Meyerbeer  and  his  work  in  Opera. 

What  was  his  influence? 


LESSON  XXXIX. 

The  Italian  School  of  the  XIXtii  Century. 

Later  Italian  School. — While  Meyerbeer  was  dominating 
the  French  stage  and  through  it  exerting  a  powerful  in- 
fluence on  serious  opera  in  all  countries,  the  Italian  school 
was  recovering  in  part  from  the  impulse  given  it  by  Rossini. 
The  highly  ornamented  style  which  he  brought  into  vogue 
was  modified  in  the  works  of  several  composers  who  also 
gave  more  consideration  to  truth  of  expression.  With  these, 
melody  still  reigned  supreme,  but  it  was  shorn  of  the  ex- 
cessive ornamentation  which  overloaded  Rossini's  music; 
in  character  and  rhythm  it  was  also  more  generally  in  ac- 
cord with  sentiment  and  situation.  The  florid  element  was 
by  no  means  suppressed;  it  had  been  an  integral  factor  in 
Italian  music  for  two  centuries  and  was  too  strongly  en- 
trenched in  public  favor  to  be  banished  so  completely  as  it 
had  been  in  the  German  romantic  opera,  but  it  was  kept  in 
subordination  and  in  the  main  not  allowed  to  dictate  the 
melodic  idea.  This  was  a  step  in  advance  for  the  Italian 
school  of  that  period,  which  through  the  fluent  warblings 
of  Rossini  and  his  imitators,  had  approached  dangerously 
near  the  Scarlatti-Handel  type  of  the  previous  century. 

Donizetti. — This  reaction  in  the  direction  of  greater  sim- 
plicity and  sincerity  was  led  by  Gaetano  Donizetti  (1797- 
1848).  At  first  a  follower  of  Rossini,  he  only  attained  suc- 
cess after  the  latter  had  ceased  composing  and  he  himself 
had  acquired  a  style  of  his  own.  Donizetti  was  not  with- 
out innate  force,  but  his  great  melodic  facility  led  him  to 
rely  upon  melody  rather  than  upon  musical  development  or 
dramatic  characterization.    Hence  his  tragic  operas,  though 

(361) 


362  THE   HISTORY  OF   MUSIC. 

often  admirable  in  detail,  lack  the  sustained  strength  de- 
manded by  their  subjects.  Of  these,  Lucia  (founded  upon 
Scott's  "Bride  of  Lammermoor")  achieved  the  greatest  pop- 
ularity, while  in  La  Favorita  (composed  for  the  Grand 
Opera)  he  shows  more  dramatic  power  than  in  any  of  his 
more  than  three-score  operas.  In  many  of  his  lighter  works 
he  is  particularly  happy ;  for  example,  in  Don  Pasqtiale, 
which  compares  favorably  with  Rossini's  //  Barbiere,  and 
in  L'Elisire  d' Amove  (The  Elixir  of  Love).  La  Fille  du 
Regiment  (The  Daughter  of  the  Regiment — written  for  the 
Opera  Comique)  has  made  the  tour  of  the  world. 

Sellini.  —  His  younger  contemporary,  Vincenzo  Bellini 
(1801-1835),  on  the  contrary,  displays  no  capacity  for 
humor  nor  is  he  much  better  fitted  to  cope  with  the  somber 
or  the  heroic.  Essentially  a  lyrical  temperament,  neither 
broad  nor  deep  but  endowed  with  exquisite  sensibility  within 
certain  limits,  his  sphere  is  the  emotional,  the  tender  and 
the  elegiac.  For  this  reason  his  charming  opera,  La  Son- 
nambula  (The  Somnambulist),  on  account  of  its  idyllic  sub- 
ject, is  a  more  representative  work  than  Norma  or  /  Puritani 
(The  Puritans),  though  both  enjoyed  high  popularity  until 
within  recent  years.  Much  of  Bellini's  vogue  was  due  to 
the  admirable  singing  of  a  number  of  Italian  artists  who 
were  identified  with  his  works — Pasta,  Grisi,  sopranos ; 
Mario,  tenor;  Tamburini,  baritone;  Lablache,  basso,  not 
to  forget  Jenny  Lind,  who  was  at  her  best  in  his  operas. 
With  their  passing  and  the  establishment  of  the  modern 
school  of  dramatic  composition,  in  which  the  voice  is  only 
one  of  many  factors  instead  of  being  the  chief  element  of 
expression,  they  have  gradually  dropped  from  the  repertory. 

Verdi.  —  A  far  more  significant  personality  than  either 
Donizetti  or  Bellini  is  Giuseppe  Verdi  (1813-1901).  Not 
merely  a  melodist  but  a  dramatist  as  well,  his  long  life  gave 
him  the  opportunity  of  profiting  by  the  many  influences 
which  brought  about  the  mighty  musical  development  of 
the  last  hundred  years.  The  fact  :hat  he  did  so  without 
compromising  his  artistic  or  national  individuality  shows 
the  inherent  genius  which  gives  to  him  the  distinction  of 


VERDI. 


363 


being  the  great  Italian  composer  of  the  century.  Strong 
and  sturdy  from  the  first,  his  early  works,  if  somewhat 
coarse  in  fiber,  seemed  doubly  powerful  in  contrast  with 
those  of  his  contemporaries,  which  were  distinguished  bv 
sweetness  and  melody  rather  than  by  depth  or  vigor.  I'rom 
Ernani  to  Rigoletto,  from  the  much  sung  Trovatore  to  Don 
Carlos,  to  mention  only  a  few  of  his  thirty  operas,  Verdi 


Giuseppe  Verdi. 


shows  a  steady  growth  in  largeness  of  style  and  command 
of  means  which  culminated  in  A'ida,  wnUen  for  the  Khedive 
of  Egypt  to  celebrate  the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal  in  1871. 
ATda. — A'ida  is  the  full  fruition  of  the  Romantic  move- 
ment beyond  the  Alps,  manifested,  however^  in  a  style  and 
manner  thoroughly  Italian.  Unmistakably  influ^^nced  by 
the  uncompromising  stand  taken  In  Germany  by  Wag^^^r, 


364  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Verdi  here  shows  the  definite  adoption  of  a  new  standard, 
yet  by  methods  which  make  no  decided  break  with  what 
he  had  hitherto  accompHshed.  In  form,  A'ida  is  closely 
alHed  to  the  Meyerbeer  type  of  Grand  Opera  through  its 
succession  of  dramatic  and  spectacular  features,  but  these 
develop  naturally  in  the  course  of  the  action  and  are  com- 
bined with  a  sincerity  and  unity  of  effect  lacking  in  the 
more  artificial  creations  of  the  German  composer.  The 
florid  style  is  strictly  avoided ;  without  the  continuous  flow 
of  the  music  drama,  the  different  movements,  recitatives, 
arias,  ensembles,  etc.,  are  yet  more  closely  connected  and 
are  sustained  by  a  richer,  more  fluent  orchestration  than  he 
had  hitherto  given  to  his  operas,  the  local  color  called  for 
by  the  Egyptian  theme  receiving  adequate  consideration, 

Sigfnificance  of  Aida. — A'ida  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
new  Italian  school,  one  more  in  sympathy  with  the  original 
conception  of  the  opera  as  a  drama,  while  retaining  the 
characteristic  Italian  grace  and  charm  of  vocal  treatment. 
This  school  was  still  further  enlarged  and  developed  by 
Verdi,  but  this  extension  belongs  to  a  later  j>eriod  and  will 
be  considered  in  its  logical  connection. 

Wagner  and  the  Music  Drama. — It  is  to  Richard  Wagner 
(1813-1883)  that  we  owe  the  renaissance  in  modern  form 
of  the  primitive  ideal  of  the  opera  as  embodied  in  the  works 
of  Peri  and  Caccini.  Simple  and  formless  as  these  now 
appear,  they  contain  the  germ  of  all  that  he  has  accom- 
plished, apart  from  the  question  of  means,  even  to  the  very 
name  of  music  drama.  This  he  revived  because,  in  his 
opinion,  the  term  opera  had  acquired  a  preponderantly  mu- 
sical signification  which  made  it  inappropriate  for  his  later 
works  in  view  of  their  dramatic  character.  An  exception 
to  the  general  rule  of  precocity  among  musicians,  it  was  not 
until  his  sixteenth  year  that  he  resolved  to  devote  himselt 
to  music.  Like  Weber,  whom  as  a  child  he  saw  frequently 
and  regarded  with  the  utmost  reverence,  his  early  associa- 
tions were  with  the  theatre  and  the  drama,  a  fact  of  no 
small  significance  in  the  careers  of  both.  Der  Freischiitz 
was  his  favorite  opera,  a  liking  which  bore  abundant  fruit 
in  later  years. 


WAGNER. 


365 


His  Early  Operas.  —  The  future  master  of  the  music 
drama,  however,  began  by  composing  operas — operas,  more- 
over, in  which  he  shows  originality  in  one  feature  only — 
that  of  writing  their  texts  himself,  and  this  remained  his 
invariable  practice.  In  other  respects  they  gave  no  hint  of 
the  startling  individuality  he  was  to  unfold  so  unexpectedly 
in  his  Flying  Dutchman.  His  first  opera  was  Die  Feen 
(The  Fairies).  It  was  based  on  a  fairy  tale  of  but  slight 
worth,  and  the  music  was  strongly  reminiscent  of  Weber 


Wagner  in  1853. 


and  Marschner.  As  the  work  of  a  youth  of  twenty,  with- 
out reputation  or  influence,  it  is  hardly  surprising  that  he 
found  no  manager  willing  to  produce  it.  He  was  some- 
what more  fortunate  with  his  second  opera.  Das  Liehesver- 
hot  (The  Love  Veto),  an  adaptation  of  Shakespeare's  "Mea- 
sure for  Measure."  This  was  performed  once,  in  1836,  at 
Magdeburg,  where  he  was  director  of  the  opera,  and  had 
thus  come  under  the  influence  of, the  French  and  Italian 
composers  then  popular  in  Germany.    The  music  is  such  a 


366  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC, 

palpable  imitation  of  Adam,  Auber,  Donizetti,  and  Bellini 
that  it  has  never  been  given  since.  Die  Feen  was  never 
produced  during  his  lifetime,  but  a  few  years  after  his  death 
received  a  number  of  representations  in  Munich. 

His  Sojourn  in  Paris. — In  1839,  he  determined  to  go  to 
Paris.  Many  foreign  composers  had  succeeded  in  enter- 
ing the  Grand  Opera,  among  them  Meyerbeer,  then  in  the 
full  flush  of  the  renown  he  had  gained  with  Les  Huguenots. 
What  one  German  had  done,  another  might  attempt.  Ac- 
cordingly, with  the  utmost  faith  in  his  star  and  amid  mani- 
fold discouragements,  Wagner  made  his  way  to  the  French 
capital,  where  he  hoped  through  the  influence  of  Meyerbeer 
to  secure  the  acceptance  of  his  Rienzi  at  the  Grand  Opera. 
He  had  prepared  it  from  Bulwer's  novel  of  the  same  name 
with  the  express  intention  of  utilizing  it  as  a  framework 
for  the  large  spectacular  style  demanded  by  the  Academic 
de  Musique.  His  sojourn  in  Paris  brought  him  nothing 
but  disappointment.  Neither  Rienzi  nor  Der  Fliegende 
Hollander  (The  Flying  Dutchman),  which  he  wrote  during 
his  stay  of  two  and  a  half  years,  was  successful  in  winning 
a  hearing,  while  he  lived  the  greater  part  of  the  time  in 
the  most  painfully  straitened  circumstances. 

Kienzi. — Before  long,  he  realized  the  hopelessness  of  his 
endeavor  and  sent  Rienzi  to  Dresden,  where  it  was  accepted 
and  after  a  long  delay  performed  in  1842.  The  result  was 
a  triumphant  success  and  led  to  the  speedy  production  of 
The  Flying  Dutchman.  This,  however,  by  no  means  made 
a  similar  impression.  Rienzi  was  an  opera  of  the  type  made 
familiar  by  Meyerbeer,  in  which  effect  was  secured  by  the 
heaping  together  of  every  device  known  to  stagecraft.  The 
ballet,  the  march  of  the  Messengers  of  Peace,  the  final 
catastrophe  of  the  burning  of  Rome,  had  as  much  to  do 
with  its  enthusiastic  reception  as  the  music,  which  was 
noisy,  showy  and  brilliant,  as  befitted  a  work  of  such  calibre. 

The  Flying  Dutchman.  Change  of  Style.  —  The  Flying 
Dutchman,  however,  showed  Wagner  in  an  entirely  differ- 
ent light.  With  it,  instead  of  receiving  his  inspiration  from 
without,  as  had  been  the  case  with  the  preceding  operas, 


CHANGE   OF    STYLE.  367 

it  came  from  within.  On  his  way  to  Paris  he  had  made 
a  stormy  voyage  of  several  weeks  from  a  port  on  the  Baltic 
to  London.  He  was  familiar  with  the  myth  of  the  Flying 
Dutchman,  and  found  that  the  sailors  on  board  his  ship  be- 
lieved it  implicitly.  This  in  connection  with  Heine's  ver- 
sion of  the  legend,  which  represents  the  unhappy  mariner 
as  doomed  to  perpetual  wandering  on  stormy  seas  until  he 
finds  a  woman  faithful  unto  death,  made  a  strong  impres- 
sion on  him,  and  while  in  Paris  he  wrote  the  poem  and  com- 
posed the  music  within  seven  weeks  after  finishing  Riensi. 
A  more  sudden  metamorphosis  of  style  is  unknown  in  the 
history  of  music.  The  earlier  work  was  an  opera  pure  and 
simple,  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term,  characterized 
by  pomp,  brilliancy,  sonority.  Its  successor  was  conceived 
as  a  drama  in  which  music  served  to  emphasize  the  action 
and  to  intensify  the  emotional  situations ;  instead  of  being 
master,  it  was  servant;  external  effects  were  disregarded 
save  only  as  they  were  in  harmony  with  this  conception. 
Not  that  the  composer  entirely  achieved  this  ideal ;  The 
Flying  Dutchman  displays  not  a  few  lapses  into  operatic 
conventionalities,  but  as  a  whole  it  was  a  startling  and  radi- 
cal change  which  puzzled  and  displeased  the  public.  They 
had  looked  for  something  in  the  style  of  Rienzi  and  could 
make  nothing  of  a  work  so  contrary  to  the  popular  idea 
of  what  an  opera  should  be.  Accordingly,  after  a  few  per- 
formances, it  was  dropped  from  the  repertory, 

Tannhauser.  —  Nothing  daunted  by  the  lack  of  favor 
shown  his  change  of  style,  Wagner  carried  it  to  a  still 
greater  extent  in  his  next  opera,  Tannhauser  (1845), 
founded  on  a  medieval  legend.  The  dramatic  motive  of 
this  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  The  Flying  Dutchman,  one 
of  which  Wagner  was  particularly  fond — the  power  of  love 
to  redeem  and  save  from  the  consequences  of  sin  and  error. 
Tannhauser  brought  about  his  head  the  full  storm  of  hostile 
criticism  which  with  The  Flying  Dutchman  had  only  begun 
to  lower.  He  was  reproached  for  its  difficulty,  for  its  lack 
of  pleasing  melodies,  for  the  audacious  harmonies  which 
many  critics  considered  inexcusable  dissonances.     Singers 


368  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

objected  to  the  broad  declamation  it  required  ;  they  com- 
plained  that  it  would  eventually  ruin  their  voices. 

Lohengrin. — This  almost  general  dissatisfaction,  however, 
led  to  no  concessions  by  the  composer  in  his  next  opera, 
Lohengrin,  which  marked  a  further  advance  in  the  unpop- 
ular direction  taken  by  its  predecessors,  but  it  interfered 
with  its  performance.  Though  he  was  conductor  of  the 
Opera  at  Dresden,  he  could  not  secure  permission  to  pro- 
duce it.  Baffled  and  discouraged  in  his  artistic  schemes,  a 
radical  in  politics,  he  joined  the  insurrectionists  during  the 
revolution  of  1849.  The  failure  of  the  rebellion  necessitated 
a  hasty  flight  from  Germany.  He  took  refuge  in  Switzer- 
land and  remained  in  exile  until  a  proclamation  of  amnesty 
in  1861  allowed  him  to  return.  In  the  meantime  he  had 
sent  the  score  of  Lohengrin  to  Liszt,  then  conductor  of  the 
opera  at  Weimar,  and  there  it  was  brought  out  in  1850. 

Lohengrin  proved  the  turning-point  in  his  fortunes.  The 
romance  of  the  subject,  its  dramatic  treatment  and  undeni- 
able beauty  gradually  reconciled  the  public  to  the  novelty 
of  its  style.  Before  Wagner  was  relieved  from  his  sentence 
of  banishment  it  had  become  one  of  the  most  popular  operas 
in  Germany — he  once  ruefully  remarked  that  he  would  soon 
be  the  only  German  who  had  not  heard  it. 

Questions. 

Who  led  in  the  changes  in  Italian  Opera  after  Rossini? 
Give  an  account  of  Donizetti  and  his  work. 
Give  an  account  of  Bellini  and  his  work. 
Give  an  account  of  Verdi  and  his  earlier  works. 
What  is  the  significance  of  Aiida  in  the  history  of  Opera? 
Tell  about  the  changes  that  Wagner  was  to  make. 
Give  an  account  of  his  early  operas. 
Why  did  he  go  to  Paris? 

Describe  Rienzi,  The  Flying  Dutchman,  Tannhauser, 
Lohengrin. 


LESSON  XL 

Richard  Wagner's  Music  Dramas.     Other  Schools. 

Wagner's  Theory  of  the  Music  Drama. — Lohengrin,  like 
The  Flying  Dutchman,  was  transitional  in  character  and 
led  into  Wagner's  third  manner.  It  was  his  last  opera ;  all 
his  later  works  were  known  as  music  dramas.  In  these  he 
pursued  unhesitatingly  the  logical  conclusions  of  the  theories 
which  he  expounded  at  great  length  in  his  controversial 
writings,  though  he  was  far  from  being  always  consistent 
with  himself.  Thus  he  reasoned  that  since  in  the  spoken 
drama  but  one  speaker  is  heard  at  a  time,  the  same  practice 
should  prevail  in  the  music  drama,  which  would  naturally 
do  away  with  all  concerted  music,  choruses,  etc.  This  rule 
he  observed  in  The  Ring  of  the  Nibelungen,  but  he  wisely 
abandoned  it  in  his  later  works.  In  Die  Meistersinger  he 
also  failed  to  follow  his  theory  that  mythical  and  legendary 
subjects  were  the  only  suitable  material  for  the  music  drama. 
Briefly  stated,  his  ultimate  conclusion  was  as  follows :  that 
the  art-work  of  the  future,  as  he  called  it,  should  consist 
of  a  synthesis  of  all  the  arts.  Music,  poetry,  painting, 
sculpture,  architecture,  he  asserted,  had  exhausted  all  that 
was  possible  to  them  as  separate  arts ;  a  higher  plane  could 
be  reached  hereafter  only  by  a  com.bination  which  should 
gain  unity  by  subordination  to  a  single  principle.  This 
principle  he  found  in  poetry.  Beethoven,  he  argued,  had 
felt  the  insufficiency  of  music  alone  to  express  his  deepest 
inspiration,  and  for  that  reason  had  incorporated  in  his  last 
and  greatest  symphony  a  choral  movement  to  the  words  of 
Schiller's  "Ode  to  Joy."  In  the  music  drama,  therefore, 
the  scene  painter  replaces  the  artist  and  the  architect,  the 

(369) 


370  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

actor  by  plastic  poses  the  sculptor,  while  the  musician  must 
allow  his  music  no  form  but  that  dictated  by  the  poet  in 
his  verses.  He  ascribed  the  thrilling  effect  of  the  Greek 
drama  to  such  a  union  of  the  arts  and  this  it  was  his  aim 
to  revive  through  his  own  works. 

The  Leading  Motive. — The  part  assigned  by  the  Greek 
dramatists  to  the  chorus  who  expounded  and  commented 
on  the  events  of  the  play  was  in  his  scheme  transferred  to 
the  orchestra.  This  he  did  by  means  of  the  Leitmotiv 
(leading  motive).  A  leitmotiv  is  a  characteristic  theme  or 
harmonic  progression  associated  with  each  of  the  Dramatis 
Persona  and  which  appears  with  such  modification  of  mode, 
rhythm,  or  any  of  its  component  parts  as  the  dramatic  sit- 
uation demands.  It  is  not  confined  to  personages  alone ; 
in  The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung,  for  instance,  the  stolen  gold, 
the  ring  formed  from  it,  the  sword  which  plays  such  an 
important  part  in  Die  Walkilre  and  in  Siegfried  all  have 
their  corresponding  motives.  It  is  through  these  motives 
that  Wagner  is  able  to  give  his  orchestra  an  all  but  artic- 
ulate speech  and  to  weld  the  music  drama  into  an  organic 
whole.  By  their  transformation  and  development  he  suc- 
ceeds in  indicating  psychological  states  and  changes  as  well 
as  material  conditions  and  objects.  Reminiscent  themes 
of  a  somewhat  similar  nature  had  been  used  as  far  back  as 
Mozart  and  had  been  employed  more  freely  by  composers 
of  the  Romantic  school,  notably  by  Weber  in  Der  Freischiits 
and  Euryanthe,  but  they  were  undeveloped  and  elementary 
in  character.  Berlioz  in  his  Fantastic  Symphony  was  the 
first  to  conceive  a  typical  theme  and  to  alter  it  in  logical 
accordance  with  the  progression  of  his  program,  but  he 
did  not  adopt  the  practice  in  his  operas. 

The  TTnending  Melody.  —  Beginning  with  Lohengrin, 
Wagner  abandoned  fixed  forms  and  substituted  what  he 
called  unending  melody,  a  practically  continuous  flow  of 
tone  divided  alike  between  voices  and  instruments.  For 
the  most  part  he  assigned  the  singer  a  declamation  as  far 
removed  from  the  set  aria  on  the  one  hand  as  it  was  from 
dry  recitative  of  the  early  Italian  opera  on  the  other.     Yet 


WlLHELM   ElCUABD   WaQNEB. 


372  THE   HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

like  the  latter  it  was  conditioned  by  principles  of  speech. 
Like  the  early  composers,  also,  his  subjects  with  but  two 
exceptions  were  mythical  or  legendary.  This,  because  the 
supernatural  and  the  unreal  correspond  more  closely  with 
the  ideal  element  introduced  by  the  use  of  song  for  speech 
than  material  drawn  from  everyday  experience  or  from  the 
exact  chronicles  of  history. 

The  Ring  of  the  Nibelung. — In  the  old  Teutonic  folk- 
epic,  the  Nihelungen  Lied  (Lay  of  the  Nibelung),  Wagner 
found  the  inspiration  for  his  next  and  most  extended  work. 
This  is  the  great  tetralogy,  Der  Ring  des  Nibelung  (The 
Ring  of  the  Nibelung),  composed  of  four  dramas  designed 
for  continuous  representation:  Das  Rheingold  (The  Rhine 
Gold),  Die  Walkiire  (The  Valkyrie),  Siegfried,  Die  Got- 
terddmmerung  (The  Twilight  of  the  Gods).  It  was  begun 
and  partially  finished  during  his  stay  in  Switzerland,  but 
his  discouragement  over  what  he  felt  to  be  the  hopeless 
task  of  ever  securing  its  performance  led  him  to  abandon 
it  and  to  set  to  work  on  another  drama  which  he  decided 
should  be  lighter  in  character  and  less  difficult  to  execute, 
in  order  the  more  readily  to  find  acceptance. 

Tristan  and  Isolde. — The  result  of  this  resolution  was 
Tristan  iind  Isolde,  but  far  from  being  a  return  to  his 
earlier  style,  as  he  had  planned,  it  was  and  probably  still  is 
the  most  intricate  operatic  score  in  existence.  It  was 
accepted  by  the  Opera  in  Vienna,  but  after  fifty-seven 
rehearsals  the  singers  declared  themselves  unable  to  learn  it 
and  it  was  given  up  as  impossible  of  execution.  Three 
years  after  his  return  to  Germany  an  unlooked-for  change 
took  place  in  his  fortunes.  The  young  king  of  Bavaria, 
Ludwig  II,  who  had  just  ascended  the  throne,  had  been  an 
ardent  admirer  of  Wagner  since  as  a  boy  of  fifteen  he  had 
heard  Lohengrin.  Hardly  had  he  taken  his  seat  before  he 
summoned  the  discouraged  composer  to  Munich  and  as- 
sured him  support  and  protection.  Tristan  und  Isolde  was 
soon  brought  out  (1865),  and  Wagner  busied  himself  with 
the  composition  of  Die  Meistersinger  von  NUrnberg  (The 
Master  Singers  of  Nuremberg),  produced  in  1868. 


BAYREUTH.       PARSIFAL.  373 

Die  Meistersinger. — This  is  his  only  comic  work,  full  of 
hitherto  unsuspected  humor  and  geniality.  The  story  of 
the  young  poet  endeavoring  to  gain  admission  to  the  jeal- 
ously-guarded ranks  of  the  master  singers  who,  notwith- 
standing the  beauty  of  his  song,  reject  him  because  he  has 
violated  their  hide-bound  rules  has  a  distinctly  autobio- 
graphic value.  Wagner  had  endured  too  much  from  similar 
pedants  to  be  lenient  with  the  picture  he  drew  of  their 
prototypes  in  medieval  Nuremberg.  As  strikingly  diatonic 
in  style  as  Tristan  und  Isolde  is  chromatic,  these  two  works 
are  the  strongest  illustrations  of  his  versatility. 

Bayreuth  and  the  Festival  Theatre. — Wagner  had  long 
cherished  the  plan  of  a  festival  theatre  for  the  performance 
of  his  Ring  of  the  Nihelung.  Jealousy  of  his  favor  with  the 
king  led  to  various  intrigues  which  prevetited  the  building 
of  such  a  theatre  in  Munich.  The  quiet  town  of  Bayreuth, 
therefore,  as  being  a  central  point,  was  chosen,  and  there  in 
1876  the  Festspielhaus  was  opened  with  the  first  complete 
performance  of  the  Tetralogy.  It  made  a  profound  im- 
pression, but  the  expense  of  the  undertaking  was  so  great 
that  it  resulted  in  a  heavy  loss  and  the  theatre  was  closed 
for  a  number  of  years.  In  1882,  however,  it  reopened  with 
Parsifal  and  since  then  its  triumphant  career  has  been  part 
of  musical  history. 

Parsifal. — Until  1903,  when  it  was  given  in  this  country, 
Parsifal  was  heard  only  in  Bayreuth.  Its  semi-sacred  char- 
acter, its  mingling  of  religious  mysticism  and  sorcery,  its 
unrivaled  stage  effects,  its  overwhelming  power  of  climax, 
the  consummate  art  of  its  thematic  construction  have  made 
it  the  most  discussed  of  Wagner's  works.  What  place  it 
may  eventually  hold  in  respect  to  the  others  can  be  decided 
only  by  time.  As  it  is,  it  stands  alone;  a  second  Parsifal 
is  hardly  conceivable. 

Influence  of  Wagner. — Unlike  Weber,  Wagner  did  not 
create  a  school — he  belonged  to  the  school  which  Weber 
founded.  Like  Gluck,  his  influence  permeated  all  schools 
but  to  a  much  greater  extent ;  none  has  succeeded  in  escap- 
ing it.     Thus  far  in  Germany  it  has  been  felt  more  in  the 


374  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

development  of  program  music,  the  symphonic  poem,  etc., 
than  in  the  music  drama  itself.  Many  have  attempted  to 
follow  directly   in  his  steps,  among-  them  AugusL  Bungert 

(1846 )  with  a  cycle  of  music  dramas.  Die  Ifunicrische 

Welt  (The  World  of  Homer),  founded  upon  the  Iliad  and 

the   Odyssey,   and   Richard   Strauss    ( 1864 )    with   his 

Guntram,  Feuersnoth,  Salome  and  Elektra,  but  none 
has   yet   shown    the   power    to   bend   the   bow    of   Achilles. 

Engelbert   Humperdinck    (1854 )    is   the   only   one   of 

Wagner's  successors  to  develop  a  new  phase  of  the  music 
drama.  This  he  did  by  applying  it  to  the  fairy  tale  in  his 
Hansel  und  Gretcl  (1893),  which  soon  found  its  way  to  all 
stages,  the  first  German  opera  to  have  such  a  success  since 
the  death  of  Wagner. 

Wagner  in  France. — In  France,  Wagner  acted  at  first  not 
so  much  directly  as  indirectly,  and  more  in  his  connection 
with  the  Romantic  school  of  W^eber  than  through  his  indi- 
vidual style  as  revealed  in  the  music  drama.  The  charac- 
teristic conservatism  of  the  French  school  was  shown  in 
holding  to  forms  which  had  been  fixed  for  generations,  but 
little  by  little  these  were  filled  with  the  new  romantic  spirit. 
This  comes  to  the  fore  in  Charles  Gounod  (1818-1893), 
whose  Faust  (1859)  has  exercised  a  strong  and  lasting  in- 
fluence on  the  lyric  drama  in  France.  Though  set  forms 
are  not  abandoned,  they  are  closely  joined  by  a  melodious 
declamation  which  approaches  the  song-speech  of  Wagner ; 
the  orchestration,  too,  is  unmistakably  romantic  in  treat- 
ment. Georges  Bizet  (1838-1875)  in  Carmen  (1875),  ^" 
opera  comique  notwithstanding  its  tragic  denouement,  pro- 
duced a  work  of  great  individuality,  which  shows  even  more 
plainly  the  influence  of  modern  romanticism.  Had  the  com- 
poser's career  not  been  cut  short  by  his  untimely  death,  it 
is  possible  that  the  French  school  would  have  maintained  a 
more  commanding  position.  For  Paris  no  longer  holds 
her  former  preeminence  as  operatic  centre ;  she  has  been 
distanced  by  Bayreuth.  Of  late  years  the  works  that  have 
had  the  most  pronounced  success  in  the  French  capital 
have  been  Wagner's  music  dramas.     A  little  more  than  a 


VERDI  S  LATEST  STYLE.  375 

generation  ago,  in  the  palmy  days  of  Auber  and  Meyerbeer, 
a  success  at  the  Grand  Opera  or  the  Opera  Comique  had 
an  international  import  and  meant  a  speedy  transference 
to  foreign  stages.  Now  the  interest  is  largely  local ;  but 
few  of  the  modern  French  operas  are  heard  outside  of 
France.  The  influence  of  Wagner  is  evident  in  a  new 
French  school,  consisting  in  the  main  of  young  composers 
whose  works  manifest  strongly  transitional  features.  At 
present  this  school  is  in  its  storm  and  stress  period ;  it  is 
yet  too  early  to  forecast  its  ultimate  effect. 

Wagner  in  Italy. — Italy  proved  more  responsive  to  Wag- 
ner's influence  than  France.  The  performance  of  Lohen- 
grin (1868),  in  Bologna,  created  much  enthusiasm  among 
the  young  musicians  of  northern  Italy,  but  it  was  the  sep- 
tuagenarian Verdi  who  inaugurated  the  era  of  the  music 
drama  by  his  Otello  (1887)  and  Falstaff  (1893).  Strictly 
speaking,  he  had  been  anticipated  by  Arrigo  Boito    (1842- 

),  wljo,  thrown  under  Wagner's  influence  in  Germany, 

had  followed  his  example  in  being  the  poet  and  composer 
alike  of  Meiistofele  (1868),  a  version  of  the  Faust  legend. 
But  this  was  Boito's  only  opera,  and  though  he  gave  the 
initial  impulse  to  the  movement,  it  was  Verdi  who  carried 
it  to  a  triumphant  issue. 

Verdi's  Latest  Style. — A'ida  had  been  a  grand  opera  with 
strong  musico-dramatic  tendencies.  In  Otello  and  Falstaff, 
Verdi  made  a  definite  entrance  into  the  music  drama.  The 
latter  in  particular,  founded  on  Shakespeare's  "Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor,"  is  an  astonishing  tour  de  force  for  a  man  of 
four-score  years.  Full  of  the  sparkle  and  freshness  of 
youth,  yet  in  every  measure  revealing  the  ripeness  of  ma- 
tured genius,  it  is  one  of  an  immortal  trio  of  lyric  comedies 
of  which  the  others  are  Mozart's  Figaro  and  Wagner's 
Meister singer.  The  set  and  traditional  forms  of  the  opera 
here  disappear  entirely;  the  music  is  conditioned  by  the 
text  and  its  dramatic  requirements ;  the  orchestra  supports 
the  voices  in  a  full,  melodious,  and  comprehensive  flow,  but 
never  overpowers  them.  Hardly  anything  can  be  detached 
from  its  context  without  losing  significance  and  interest; 


376  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

and  this,  by  the  way,  is  one  of  the  most  distinctive  peculiari- 
ties of  the  music  drama  and  more  than  anything  else  points 
the  radical  difference  between  it  and  the  opera.  Yet  though 
this  change  of  manner  is  undoubtedly  due  to  Wagner,  Verdi 
is  in  no  sense  an  imitator.  The  style  remains  his  own  and 
is  essentially  Italian  in  character — that  is,  it  is  based  upon 
vocal  rather  than  instrumental  capabilities. 

The  New  Italian  School. — The  latest  development  of  the 
music  drama  in  Italy  has  been  in  the  direction  of  so-called 
naturalism.  This  consists  in  the  choice  of  brutal  phases  of 
life  for  illustration,  told  in  short,  concise  forms  which  con- 
centrate and  hasten  the  dramatic  action.  A  greater  contrast 
to  the  inordinately  long  and  heroic  operas  of  Meyerbeer 
and  Wagner  can  hardly  be  imagined ;  it  is  more  than  prob- 
able, indeed,  that  the  reaction  against  the  excessive  length 
of  the  music  drama  led  to  the  great  and  sudden  vogue  of 
this  school.     The  first  impulse  to  naturalism  was  given  by 

Pietro  Mascag^i  ( 1863 )  in  his  two-act  opera,jOavalleria 

Rnsticana  (Rustic  Chivalry),  in  1890.  This  is  a  tale  of 
love,  jealousy,  and  revenge  told  in  music  admirably  adapted 
to  the  vivid,  crude  representation  of  elemental  passions. 
Two  years  later   followed  /  Pagliacci    (The   Clowns)    by 

Eugg^ero  Leoncavallo  (1858 ),  a  work  of  precisely  the 

same  character.  Though  many  others  have  essayed  the 
same  style,  these  two  thus  far  remain  the  most  representa- 
tive of  their  class.     Their  popularity  has  been  approached 

only  by  Giacomo  Puccini  (1858 )  in  La  Boheme  (The 

Bohemians),  produced  in  1896.  Four  years  later  his  Tosca 
appeared  and  did  much  to  strengthen  the  impression  given 
by  its  predecessor — that  in  Puccini  Italy  possesses  her  most 
promising  dramatic  composer. 

Schools  Compared. — Thus  at  the  beginning  of  the  20th 
century  we  find  the  principles  of  the  music  drama  as  enun- 
ciated by  Wagner  influencing  all  the  three  great  schools 
of  dramatic  composition.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  however, 
that  these  schools,  though  thus  approaching  in  artistic  ideals, 
still  retain  the  characteristics  which  distinguished  them  from 
the  very  beginning :  the  Italian,  melody  and  beauty  of  tone ; 


RESUME.  377 

the  French,  clearness  of  form  and  logical  dramatic  develop- 
ment;  the  German,  elevation  of  subject  and  harmonic  rich- 

*       ness. 

i  Younger  Schools.  —  Younger  schools  having  a  strongly 

national  character  exist  in  Russia  and  Bohemia,  but  as  yet 
they  possess  only  local  signification  and  have  produced  no 
practical  efifect  outside  of  their  respective  countries.  Michael 
Glinka   (1803-1857)    with  his  patriotic  opera.  Life  for  the 

\  Czar,  founded  the  Russian  opera  in  1836.  The  Bohemian 
opera  is  of  more  recent  origin  and  is  associated  principally 
with  the  names  of  Friedrich  Smetana  (1824-1884)  and 
Antonin  DvoMk   ( 184 1- 1904), 

Resumd'. — From  its  dual  nature,  the  opera  is  necessarily 
a  compromise.  Composed  of  two  elements,  the  musical 
and  the  dramatic,  it  is  peculiarly  susceptible  to  disintegra- 
tion; its  history  is  a  record  of  almost  continuous  veering 
from  one  to  the  other  of  these  two  phases.  We  have  seen 
how  the  immense  proportions  of  the  ancient  amphitheatres 
led  to  the  musical  declamation  on  which  the  opera  is 
founded,  from  the  fact  that  the  tones  of  the  singing  voice 
are  far  more  reaching  than  those  of  the  voice  in  speaking. 
The  Florentine  experimenters,  in  seeking  to  restore  this 
declamation,  soon  discovered  the  capabilities  for  emotional 
expression  latent  in  the  varying  timbres  and  vastly  extended 
range  of  the  former.  As  for  its  musical  possibilities,  these 
were  entirely  beyond  their  ken.  The  steps  taken  in  that 
direction  they  regarded  with  disfavor  as  indicating  a  devia- 
tion from  the  oratorical  standards  which  were  their  sole 
aim.  After  Carissimi  and  Scarlatti  had  developed  the  ele- 
ments of  symmetrical  form  and  melody,  music  emerged 
from  this  dependent  condition  and  dictated  to  the  drama, 
which  sank  to  an  almost  negligible  factor.  The  reaction  led 
by  Gluck  served  to  restore  the  balance  for  a  time,  but 
through  Rossini  and  his  followers  the  pendulum  again 
swung  in  the  other  direction.  The  Romantic  movement  then 
brought  the  drama  again  to  the  fore;  the  spirit  of  the  age 
was  behind  it  and  all  schools  felt  its  influence,  though  each 
manifested  it  in  characteristic  fashion. 


378  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Influence  of  the  Opera  on  Music  in  General. — These  alter- 
nations have  had  a  powerful  effect  on  the  development  of 
music  in  general,  an  effect  both  technical  and  expressive 
in  nature.  From  the  harpsichord  and  the  few  viols  used  at 
first  merely  to  support  the  voice  and  to  give  it  pitch,  the 
orchestra  expanded  into  a  large  body  of  instruments  capable 
in  itself  of  dramatic  utterance.  From  the  tiny  ritornello 
of  eight  measures  played  by  three  flutes  in  Peri's  Eiiridice, 
there  has  grown  an  independent  instrumental  art  of  vast 
significance.  The  opera  also  created  a  schooltof  singing 
which  though  often  unworthily  used  for  purposes  of  purely 
personal  display  is  the  basis  of  the  vocal  art  of  today.  In 
short,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  little  band  of  scholars 
and  musicians  who  met  three  centuries  ago  with  the  aim  of 
reviving  a  lost  art  practically  originated  a  new  one. 

References. 

Finck. — Wagner  and  His  Works. 
Modern  Composers  and  Their  Works. 

Questions. 

Give  an  account  of  Wagner's  theory  of  the  Music  Drama. 

What  is  meant  by  the  term  Leading  Motive?  Unending 
melody  ? 

What  works  compose  the  Ring  series? 

Tell  about  "Tristan  und  Isolde,"  "Die  Meistersinger." 

In  what  city  was  a  theatre  built  for  Wagner's  dramas? 

Describe  "Parsifal." 

What  composers  has  Wagner  influenced? 

What  was  his  influence  on  French  composers  and  the 
names  of  those  most  prominent ;    their  works  ? 

What  was  his  influence  upon  the  Young  Italian  school? 

Who  are  the  prominent  members  of  that  school? 

What  changes  did  Verdi  show  in  his  latest  works? 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  various  schools? 

Give  a  resume  of  the  development  of  opera. 

What  has  been  the  influence  of  opera  upon  music? 


LESSON    HELPS.  379 

Review  Suggestions,  Lessons  XXXVII  to  XL. 

What  was  the  effect  of  the  Romantic  movement  on  the 
Opera  ? 

Write  a  sketch  of  Weber  and  his  work  in  Opera. 

What  differences  are  there  between  Opera  Comique  and 
Grand  Opera? 

Compare  the  works  of  Spohr  and  Marschner  with  those 
of  Weber. 

Describe  the  typical  Opera  Comique  and  name  some 
notable  work  in  this  style. 

What  changes  took  place  in  Grand  Opera  through  the 
influence  of  Auber  and  Meyerbeer? 

State  the  differences  between  the  German,  French  and 
Italian  opera  styles. 

Write  a  sketch  of  Verdi  and  his  works. 

Give  an  account  of  Wagner  and  the  works  of  his  first 
period.     His  second  period. 

What  was  Wagner's  theory  of  the  music  drama? 

Explain  the  two  essential  principles  he  used. 

Describe  Wagner's  later  works :  "Ring"  series,  "Tristan 
und  Isolde,"  "Die  Meistersinger,"  "Parsifal."  (Each  one 
may  be  made  the  subject  of  an  essay.) 

How  did  Wagner  influence  opera  in  Italy  and  in  France? 

Give  a  sketch  of  the  later  schools  of  opera. 


LESSON  XLl. 

Piano  Playing  and  Composition:    Clementi  to  Field. 

During  the  period  after  Mozart  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Romantic  movement,  one  name  alone  attains  the  first  rank 
— that  of  Beethoven.  At  the  same  time  there  are  several 
epoch-making  pianists,  whose  compositions  display  talent 
rather  than  genius,  but  who  have  each  rendered  indisputable 
service  in  accomplishing  the  transition  from  the  classic  to 
the  romantic  composers.  The  landmarks,  so  to  speak,  of 
this  period  are  Clementi,  Cramer,  Hummel,  Czerny,  Mos- 
cheles  and  Field. 

Muzio  Clementi  (1752-1832)  was  born  at  Rome.  His 
father  was  quick  to  perceive  his  son's  gift  for  music,  and 
•strove  to  develop  it  by  the  best  teaching  available.  While 
he  was  still  a  lad,  an  Englishman,  Bedford  or  Beckford, 
took  young  Clementi  with  him  to  England  where  he  lived 
with  his  benefactor  until  1770,  perfecting  himself  in  piano 
playing  and  composition.  At  his  first  appearances  in  London 
he  created  a  furore,  and  from  1777- 1780  he  conducted  at  the 
piano  in  the  Italian  opera  there.  In  1781,  he  began  his 
travels  as  a  virtuoso.  At  Vienna  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Josef  Haydn,  and  also  had  a  sort  of  musical  combat  with 
Mozart.  Each  read  at  sight,  played  his  own  compositions 
and  improvised.  Opinion  was  divided  as  to  the  outcome. 
Clementi  displayed  more  virtuosity,  while  Mozart  charmed 
by  his  singing-tone,  finished  phrasing  and  expressive  style. 
For  the  following  twenty  years,  Clementi  lived  in  London. 
He  became  interested  in  a  piano  manufactory  and  when  the 
firm  failed,  he  established  another,  which  is  still  carried  on. 
In  1802,  Clementi  went  on  a  concert-tour  with  two  favorite 
pupils,  J.  B.  Cramer  and  John  Field.  They  visited  Paris, 
(380) 


CLEMENTI. 


381 


Vienna  and  even  St.  Petersburg,  arousing  great  enthusiasm 
everywhere.  In  1810,  he  settled  in  London  permanently, 
devoting  himself  to  composition  and  business.  In  1817,  he 
published  his  Gradus  ad  Parnassmn,  a  series  of  one  hundred 
studies  treating  every  branch  of  technic  and  every  problem 
of  piano  playing  then  known. 


Muzio  Clementi. 


Ckmenti  as  Composer  and  Pianist. — In  addition  to  his  earlj 
works,  Clementi  composed  symphonies,  more  than  one  hun- 
dred sonatas  for  piano,  preludes,  toccatas,  canons  and  other 
piano  music  and  finally  the  Gradus.  As  Clementi  was  a 
true  Italian  by  temperament,  and  German  in  his  education, 
the  sonatas  show  the  influence  of  Domenico  Scarlatti,  as 
well  as  of  Haydn  and  Mozart.  They  are  technically  in  ad- 
vance of  their  day,  though  inclined  to  dryness  musically. 


382  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

However,  Beethoven  admired  them,  and  is  said  to  have  pre- 
ferred them  to  those  of  Mozart,  dementi's  monumental 
work,  the  studies,  treats  every  difficulty  and  style  of  piano 
playing  so  very  comprehensively  that  it  is  still  indispensahle 
to  the  student.  In  his  youth  Clementi  was  a  bravura-player, 
pure  and  simple.  "Strong  in  runs  of  thirds,  but  without  a 
pennyworth  of  feeling"  was  Mozart's  verdict.  But  later, 
when  Clementi  had  become  acquainted  with  the  larger  tone 
of  the  English  pianos,  he  cultivated  expressive  playing.  At 
his  best,  his  brilliancy  and  facility  were  dazzling,  and  he 
invariably  carried  all  before  him.  Considering  the  fun- 
damental value  of  his  studies,  and  his  preeminent  abilities 
as  a  pianist,  it  is  just  to  give  him  the  title  of  "The  Father 
of  Piano  Playing." 

Johann  Baptist  Cramer  (1771-1858)  was  born  at  Mann- 
heim, Germany.  When  he  was  but  a  year  old  his  father 
moved  to  London.  As  a  boy  he  studied  the  violin  and  the 
piano,  as  well  as  the  theory  of  music,  but  soon  showed  the 
greater  aptitude  for  the  piano.  Later  he  became  a  pupil  of 
Clementi.  Handel,  Bach,  Scarlatti,  Haydn  and  Mozart  were 
the  objects  of  his  attention,  thus  establishing  a  taste  for  the 
classics.  In  1788,  Cramer  began  a  series  of  tours  on  the 
Continent,  living  at  London  in  the  intervals.  In  1828,  he 
founded  the  music  publishing  firm  of  J.  B.  Cramer  &  Co. 
He  lived  in  Paris  from  1832  to  1845,  but  returned  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  remained  until  his  death. 

Cramer  as  Composer  and  Pianist. — Of  Cramer's  numerous 
compositions,  such  as  seven  concertos  and  one  hundred  and 
five  sonatas  for  the  piano,  besides  variations,  rondos,  fan- 
tasias, etc.,  a  quartet  and  quintet,  little  is  worth  survival. 
His  representative  work  is  a  series  of  seventy-six  studies, 
Op.  50,  to  which  he  afterwards  added.  These  studies  long 
enjoyed  a  reputation  second  only  to  those  of  Clementi. 
They  do  not  aim  primarily  at  virtuosity,  but  towards  the 
cultivation  of  musical  style ;  at  the  same  time  they  exhibit 
novelty  of  technical  invention,  and  demand  a  decided  pro- 
ficiency. Thus  they  tend  to  supplement  the  studies  of 
Clementi  which  are  chiefly  concerned  with  technic.     As  a 


HUMMEL. 


383 


performer,  Cramer  was  greatly  admired  for  his  perfect 
legato,  distinctness  of  phrasing  and  quiet  singing  tone.  Bee- 
thoven is  said  to  have  preferred  him  to  all  other  pianists  of 
his  time.  While  Cramer  does  not  present  a  technical  ad- 
vance over  Clementi,  he  undoubtedly  did  much  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  more  strictly  musical  qualities  and  thus 
stands  for  a  definite  progress. 

Johann  Nepomuk  Hummel  (1778-1837)  was  born  at  Pres- 
burg,  Hungary.  His  father,  who  had  been  instructor  in 
music  at  a  militarv  school  in  Wartburg,  moved  to  Vienna 


J.  N.  Hummel. 


in  1786  to  become  director  at  the  theatre  of  Schikaneder, 
(the  author  of  the  libretto  of  Mozart's  opera  "The  Magic 
Flute).  Mozart  soon  took  so  deep  an  interest  in  young 
Hummel  that  he  took  him  to  live  with  him  and  taught  him 
for  two  years.  From  1788  to  1795,  Hummel  traveled  as 
a  virtuoso.  On  returning  to  Vienna  he  studied  composition 
with  Albrechtsberger,  and  received  advice  from  Salieri  and 
Haydn.  From  1804  to  181 1  he  was  music-director  under 
Prince  Esterhazy,  Haydn's  patron.  In  18 16,  he  became 
conductor  at  Stuttgart,  and  in  18 19  he  occupied  a  similar 
position  at  Weimar,     From  here  he  went  to  Russia,  where 


384  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

he  made  a  successful  concert-tour,  playing  at  Warsaw, 
where  the  youthful  Chopin  heard  him.  From  1825  to  1833 
he  traveled  on  concert-tours,  returning  to  Weimar,  where 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

Hummel  as  Composer  and  Pianist-^Hummel's  composi- 
tions include  operas,  ballets,  masses  and  other  church  music, 
a  quintet,  trios,  rondos,  studies  and  other  music  for  the 
piano,  but  he  is  best  known  for  the  piano  concertos  in  A-flat, 
A  minor  and  B  minor,  the  sonatas  in  F-sharp  minor  and 
D  major,  the  Septet,  Op.  74,  and  a  voluminous  instruction- 
book  for  the  piano,  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  pedantry  and 
absence  of  practicality.  As  a  pupil  of  Mozart,  he  followed 
his  teacher's  form  and  style,  without  exhibiting  marked 
creative  genius.  His  technic  is  noticeable  chiefly  for  its 
superficial  glitter  of  brilliant  passages,  which  constitute  a 
certain  development  in  themselves.  His  compositions  were 
in  great  vogue  at  one  time,  and  he  was  once  even  regarded 
as  the  equal  of  Beethoven.  As  a  pianist.  Hummel  was  un- 
usual. His  style  was  distinguished  by  precision,  clearness, 
and  command  of  brilliant  effect.  His  influence  as  a  concert 
pianist  was  very  great,  and  in  this  direction  his  extension 
of  the  province  of  the  virtuoso  is  considerable.  He  un- 
doubtedly affected  Chopin's  piano  style  for  a  time  and  for 
this  reason  alone  should  claim  our  attention. 

Carl  Czemy  (1791-1857)  was  born  at  Vienna.  His 
father,  an  excellent  musician,  taught  his  son  piano  playing 
at  an  early  age.  Beethoven  became  interested  in  him,  and 
gave  him  lessons.  He  also  learned  much  from  Hummel  and 
Clementi.  Czerny  soon  became  in  great  demand  as  a  teacher. 
He  made  concert-tours  to  Leipzig,  Paris,  London  and  Lom- 
bardy.  For  the  most  part  he  lived  quietly  in  Vienna,  teach- 
ing and  composing.  In  1850,  his  health  gave  way  from 
overwork.  His  most  celebrated  pupils  were  Franz  Liszt 
and  Theodore  Leschetizky. 

Czemy's  Compositions. — Czerny  was  an  indefatigable  and 
over-fluent  composer  who  weakened  his  powers  by  over- 
productivity.  Hence,  of  more  than  a  thousand  works,  his 
masses,    requiems,    symphonies,   overtures,   chamber-music. 


CZERNY. 


385 


etc.,  are  obsolete,  but  his  educational  works  are  destined  to 
live.  Of  many  valuable  sets  of  studies,  the  most  used  are 
those  for  Velocity,  Op.  299,  and  Finger  Training,  Op.  740. 
Musically,  they  are  of  slight  importance,  but  they  are  in- 
valuable to  this  day  in  acquiring  facility.  Czerny  had  an 
immense  knowledge  of  the  higher  mechanism  of  piano  play- 


Carl  Czerny 


ing,  and  a  keen  perception  of  practical  methods.  His  fame 
as  a  pianist  was  overshadowed  by  his  ceaseless  work  as 
teacher  and  composer, 

Ignaz  Moscheles  (1794-1870),  described  as  "the  foremost 
pianist  after  Hummel  and  before  Chopin,"  was  born  at 
Prague.    He  studied  the  piano  with  Dionys  Weber,  director 


386  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

of  the  Prague  Conservatory,  and  at  fourteen  played  a  con- 
certo of  his  own  in  pubhc.  After  the  death  of  his  father, 
he  went  to  Vienna  to  make  his  way  as  a  teacher,  and  to  con- 
tinue his  studies  in  composition.  He  soon  became  in  great 
demand  as  a  pianist  and  teacher,  and  for  ten  years  Hved  the 
life  of  a  traveling  virtuoso.  In  1824.  he  gave  lessons  to 
Mendelssohn,  then  a  boy  of  fifteen,  at  Berlin.  Soon  after 
his  marriage  at  Hamburg,  in  1826,  he  went  to  London, 
where  he  remained  with  some  interruptions  for  nearly  twenty 
years   of  activity   as   pianist,   teacher   and    conductor.      In 


I0I7AZ  MOSCHELES. 

1845,  he  took  the  post  of  teacher  of  the  piano  at  the  Leipzig 
Conservatory,  founded  by  Mendelssohn. 

Moscheles  as  Composer  and  Pianist. — As  a  composer,  Mos- 
cheles  was  divided  between  his  classical  training  and  his 
unmistakably  romantic  instincts.  Hence,  a  long  list  of  varia- 
tions, fantasias,  rondos,  written  to  please  publishers,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  fashion  of  the  time,  have  not  survived, 
but  his  best  works,  the  concerto  in  G  minor,  the  "Pathetic" 
concerto,  the  sonata.  Op.  49,  his  duet  for  two  pianos,  "Hom- 
mage  a  Handel"  and  especially  the  studies,  Op.  70  and  95, 


FIELD.  387 

combine  a  respect  for  classic  form  with  the  growing  Ro- 
mantic movement.  The  studies  may  be  regarded  as  the 
legitimate  successors  to  those  of  Cramer,  and  paved  the  way 
for  the  more  romantic  etudes  of  Chopin.  Moscheles  was  a 
solidly  trained  pianist  of  great  brilliancy.  He  had  many 
characteristics  of  the  classical  school ;  he  used  the  pedals 
sparingly,  he  played  octaves  with  a  stiff  wrist,  his  phrasing 
was  precise  and  his  accents  were  sharply  marked ;  but  in 
the  brilliant  style  he  had  no  rivals.  He  was  famous  for  his 
improvisations ;  his  cadenzas  to  concertos  and  his  extempore 
treatments  of  well-known  themes  were  marked  by  spon- 
taneity, brilliance  and  exquisite  feeling. 

John  Field  (1782-1837),  one  of  the  last  connecting  links 
between  the  Classical  and  Romantic  schools,  was  born  at 
Dublin.  Early  in  life,  he  was  taken  to  London  and  ap- 
prenticed to  Clementi,  who  gave  him  lessons,  and  employed 
him  to  show  off  his  pianos.  In  1802,  he  went  on  a  concert- 
tour  with  Clementi  to  Paris,  Germany  and  Russia.  Field 
lived  for  many  years  as  pianist  and  teacher  at  St.  Petersburg 
and  Moscow.  After  returning  to  England,  he  made  a  long 
tour  through  Belgium,  Switzerland,  and  finally,  Italy,  where 
his  health  gave  way.  Shortly  after  he  returned  to  Moscow, 
where  he  died. 

Field  as  Composer  and  Pianist. — Field's  compositions  in 
classical  forms  include  seven  concertos,  four  sonatas,  rondos, 
variations,  etc.  They  are  forgotten  now,  although  Chopin 
had  a  partiality  for  his  concerto  in  A-flat  and  gave  it  to  his 
pupils ;  but  his  lyric  pieces  for  piano,  entitled  nocturnes, 
are  still  played.  They  are  the  forerunners  of  the  type  so 
extended  and  developed  by  Chopin.  He  is  thus  one  of  the 
first  of  the  romanticists  in  spite  of  his  classical  training.  In 
1802,  Field  astonished  the  Parisians  by  his  masterly  playing 
of  Bach  and  Handel,  but  his  individuality  later  took  a  more 
romantic  turn.  His  tone  was  tender  and  melancholy,  and 
his  phrases  gently  expressive.  Shortly  before  his  death, 
though  broken  in  health,  he  created  a  stir  in  Vienna  by  his 
interpretations  of  his  own  nocturnes.  In  some  respects  his 
playing  was  akin  to  Chopin's  highly  individual  style. 


388  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

To  sum  up,  it  will  be  seen  that  Clementi  was  the  originator 
of  a  system  of  technic  that  has  served  as  the  foundation  of 
modern  piano  playing ;  Cramer  was  the  conserver  of  classic 
style  and  purity  of  standard ;  Hummel,  as  a  brilliant  pianist, 
had  a  decided  influence  on  the  piano  playing  of  his  time, 
but  as  a  composer  attempted  to  pass  superficial  brilliance  for 
the  true  coin  of  musical  substance;  Czerny,  one  of  the 
greatest  educators  in  the  history  of  piano  playing,  has  had 
an  immense  influence  through  his  invaluable  educational 
works,  and  as  the  teacher  of  Franz  Liszt,  the  epitome  of 
modern  piano  playing,  and  also  of  Theodore  Leschetizky, 
possibly  the  foremost  teacher  of  the  present  day ;  Moscheles, 
the  classic  pianist,  gave  decided  impetus  to  the  cause  of 
romanticism  by  his  best  compositions ;  Field,  though  the 
pupil  of  Clementi,  prepared  the  way  through  his  own  indi- 
viduality for  the  greatest  piano  composer  of  the  Romantic 
period,  Chopin,  and  thus  became  an  important  factor  in  the 
transition  from  the  Classic  to  the  Romantic  period. 

References. 

Grove. — Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  articles  on 
Pianoforte  Playing  and  players  mentioned  in  this  lesson. 
Weitzmann. — History  of  Piano  Playing. 
Bie. — The  Piano. 
Fillmore. — Pianoforte  Music. 

Questions. 

What  composers  form  the  transition  from  the  Classic  to 
the  Romantic  school? 

Give  a  summary  of  this  transition  period. 

Give  a  sketch  of  Clementi. 

What  was  dementi's  greatest  work? 

What  were  his  contributions  to  piano  playing? 

Give  a  sketch  of  Cramer. 

What  work  is  most  representative  of  Cramer  as  a  com- 
poser? 

Mention  his  contributions  to  piano  playing. 

Give  an  account  of  Hummel's  life. 


LESSON    HELPS.  389 

What  classic  pianist  was  a  pupil  of  Mozart? 
What  was  his  influence  on  piano  playing? 
Give  a  sketch  of  Czerny's  career. 
Who  were  Czerny's  most  famous  pupils? 
What  influence  did  he  exert  on  piano  playing? 
Give  a  sketch  of  Moscheles'  life. 

What  composer  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Moscheles  ? 
What  is  the  value  of  his  educational  works? 
Give  a  sketch  of  Field's  career  and  his  influence  on  pianc 
playing. 
What  form  did  Field  originate? 


Fbanz  Peter  Schubert. 


LESSON  XLII. 

Franz  Peter  Schubert. 

The  rise  of  the  Romantic  school  involves  a  greater  free- 
dom in  form,  a  fuller  play  of  poetry  and  imagination,  a 
general  artistic  evolution  and  independence  in  comparison 
with  the  formality  of  the  Classic  period.  The  struggle  to 
establish  these  principles  was  long  and  obstinate,  but  the 
outcome  was  as  inevitable  as  the  victory  won  by  Beethoven's 
sonata  and  symphonic  forms  over  the  more  primitive  types 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart.  The  first  departures  from  the 
classic  attitude  were  made  by  Schubert,  whose  influence  has 
been  permanent  in  the  development  of  romanticism. 

Schubert's  Early  Life  (1797-1816). — Franz  Peter  Schu- 
bert was  born  in  a  suburb  of  Vienna,  January  31,  1797.  At 
an  early  age  he  had  lessons  on  the  violin  from  his  father, 
who  was  a  school  teacher,  and  on  the  piano,  from  his  elder 
brother.  He  so  quickly  outstripped  both  teachers  that  he 
was  sent  to  Michael  Holzer,  choir-master  of  the  parish,  who 
taught  him  piano,  organ,  violin,  singing  and  theory.  In 
later  years,  Holzer  disclaimed  the  value  of  his  instruction, 
saying:  "li  I  ever  wished  to  teach  him  anything  new,  I 
found  he  had  already  mastered  it."  After  singing  in  the 
parish  choir,  he  passed  an  examination  for  admission  to  the 
Imperial  Convict  or  school  for  the  Royal  choristers.  The 
training  included  general  education  as  well  as  music ;  there 
was  also  an  orchestra  among  the  boys  in  which  Schubert 
played  the  violin  and  sometimes  conducted.  There  were 
privations  connected  with  life  at  the  Convict,  the  practice 
rooms  were  insufferably  cold,  and  the  food  insufficient.  In 
1 810,  Schubert  began  to  compose,  dating  his  pieces  care- 
fully, and  the  only  check  to  his  inspiration  was  the  lack  of 

(391) 


392  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

music-paper,  which  he  was  too  poor  to  buy.  A  generous 
friend  made  up  the  deficiency.  In  1813,  he  left  the  Convict, 
ahhough  his  general  education  was  by  no  means  complete, 
since  he  had  neglected  his  studies  on  account  of  his  increas- 
ing passion  for  composition.  After  leaving  the  Convict, 
Schubert  taught  elementary  classes  at  his  father's  school, 
but  the  drudgery  became  insupportable.  An  ardent  friend 
and  admirer,  Franz  von  Schober,  realizing  that  Schubert's 
creative  powers  were  greatly  hampered  by  the  conditions  of 
his  life,  gave  him  a  home.  Already  he  had  composed  some 
of  his  most  famous  songs,  including  "The  Erl-King." 

Later  Years  (1816-1828). — From  1816  on,  Schubert  ap- 
pears to  have  lived  in  Schober's  apartments,  except  for  two 
years  shared  with  the  poet  Mayerhofer,  and  a  period  spent 
with  a  friend,  Schwind.  It  is  a  mystery  how  Schubert  man- 
aged to  live,  for  he  taught  little,  and  his  few  publications 
could  have  brought  him  at  best  only  small  sums  at  irregular 
intervals.  He  had  already  failed  to  secure  a  position  in  a 
Government  school  of  music,  but  in  18 18  he  passed  the 
summer  as  music  teacher  to  the  household  of  Count  Johann 
Esterhazy,  in  Zelescz,  Hungary.  The  record  of  his  life  here- 
after is  one  of  incessant  composition,  with  few  interruptions 
or  facts  of  interest.  In  1823,  he  showed  Weber  his  eighth 
work  for  the  stage :  "Alfonso  and  Estrella."  The  only  advice 
he  received  was  that  "first  operas,  like  first  puppies,  should 
be  drowned."  The  summer  of  1824  was  spent  again  with 
the  Esterhazys  and  many  characteristic  compositions,  such 
as  the  quartet  in  A  minor,  the  "Hungarian  Divertissement." 
the  piano  sonata  in  B-flat,  etc.,  date  from  this  time.  In 
1826,  Schubert  failed  to  obtain  either  of  two  positions, 
which  would  have  placed  him  above  need,  the  second  be- 
cause, like  Beethoven,  he  refused  to  alter  a  trial  aria  to  suit 
the  voice  of  a  capricious  singer.  Schubert  was  taken  to  see 
Beethoven  during  his- last  illness,  in  1827,  In  1828,  he  went 
to  live  with  his  brother  Ferdinand  in  a  new  and  damp  house. 
His  health,  which  had  been  troublesome  before,  now  gave 
way,  and  he  died  of  typhoid  fever,  November  28,  1828,  in 
his  thirty-second  year. 


SCHUBERT'S    PERSONALITY,  393 

Personal  Traits  and  Habits  of  Work. — Schubert  was  short 
of  stature,  thickset  and  rather  heavy  in  features.  His  face 
in  repose  was  rather  devoid  of  expression,  but  when  inter- 
ested in  anything,  his  eyes  glowed  with  enthusiasm  and  his 
whole  appearance  changed.  His  disposition  was  even  and 
good-tempered,  he  was  simple  and  trusting  by  nature,  and 
could  rarely  be  induced  to  put  himself  forward.  Although 
receiving  many  favors  from  friends,  his  generosity  often 
led  him  to  give  to  others  when  he  could  ill  spare  it.  He  be- 
gan composing  early  in  the  morning  and  worked  uninter- 
ruptedly for  several  hours;  he  walked  much  in  the  after- 
noon or  paid  visits  to  friends,  spending  his  evenings  with 
congenial  spirits  at  various  taverns.  Composing  was  the 
mainspring  of  his  existence,  and  he  often  wrote  down  his 
ideas  while  in  the  midst  of  conversation  with  others.  Thus 
he  wrote  his  immortal  "Serenade"  on  the  back  of  a  bill-of- 
fare  at  a  tavern ;  a  piece  for  four-hands  while  waiting  at  a 
hospital  for  a  friend,  "and  dinner  missed  in  consequence" ; 
a  movement  of  a  string  quartet  was  begun  about  midnight 
and  finished  in  the  early  morning.  Although  he  set  many 
poems  by  Goethe,  Schiller  and  Heine,  his  inspiration  was 
quite  as  effectively  aroused  by  second-rate  poems  of  his 
friends  Mayerhofer,  von  Schober,  or  the  artless  poems  of 
Miiller.  Schubert  was  shy  and  reserved  in  what  might  be 
called  "good  society" ;  he  preferred  the  company  of  con- 
genial friends  in  an  humbler  social  station.  He  seems  to 
have  cared  little  for  literature,  and  his  love  of  poetry  was 
limited  to  its  availability  as  texts  for  songs.  In  early  life 
he  played  the  violin  and  the  viola  in  a  family  string  quartet. 
Schubert  was  no  virtuoso  on  the  piano,  but  he  played  ex- 
quisite accompaniments,  and  he  read  well  at  sight  in  spite 
of  defective  eyesight.  His  performance  was  marked  by  ear- 
nestness and  attention  to  the  inner  sentiment  of  the  music 
rather  than  by  the  superficial  polish  .of  the  mere  pianist. 
It  was  said  that  no  one  could  forget  the  effect  of  Schubert's 
songs  as  performed  by  himself  and  his  friend  Vogl ;  the 
two  seemed  absolutely  united,  the  ideal  condition  for  the 
rendering  of  vocal  works. 


394  THE   HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

Schubert's  Compositions. — Schubert  completed  more  than 
eleven  hundred  pieces  in  about  eighteen  years.  Such  fer- 
tility is  unique  in  the  history  of  composition,  and  is  scarcely 
equalled  even  by  Mozart,  whose  activity  extended  over 
nearly  thirty  years.  Schubert's  powers  of  spontaneous  in- 
vention have  never  been  approached  ;  he  composed  generally 
without  making  sketches ;  he  seldom  revised,  for  his  ideas 
came  faster  than  he  could  write  them  down.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  enumerate  all  Schubert's  works,  but  the  following 
comprise  the  most  important:  Nine  symphonies,  eleven 
works  for  the  stage,  six  masses,  over  seventy  part-songs, 
choruses,  etc.,  for  various  combinations,  twenty-four  sonatas 
for  piano,  fantasies,  overtures,  variations,  marches  and 
dances  for  piano  duet,  impromptus,  moments  musicals, 
fantasies,  variations  and  over  two  hundred  dances  for  piano 
solo,  two  trios  for  piano  and  strings,  a  quintet  for  strings 
and  piano,  a  string  quintet  and  several  string  trios,  twenty- 
four  string  quartets,  besides  about  six  hundred  songs  with 
piano  accompaniment  and  occasionally  with  obligatos  for 
other  instruments.  It  is  obvious  that  such  fertility  is  not 
consistent  with  evenness  of  quality ;  we  must  pick  and 
choose  to  find  the  real  Schubert.  However,  the  symphonies 
in  C  and  B  minor  ("Unfinished"),  the  string  quartets  in 
D  minor  and  G  major,  several  sonatas  for  piano,  the  im- 
promptus, moments  musicals,  the  fantasy  in  C  for  piano,  the 
Hungarian  Divertissement,  several  marches  and  other  com- 
positions for  four  hands,  many  charming  two-hand  waltzes, 
and,  finally,  such  song-cycles  as  the  "Miller-Songs,"  the 
"Winter  Journey,"  those  called  "Swan-Songs"  by  the  pub- 
lishers, as  well  as  about  thirtv  separate  songs  "The  Erl- 
King,"  "The  Wanderer,"  "To'Sylvia,"  "The  Omnipotent," 
"The  Young  Nun,"  the  "Serenade,"  "Hark!  Hark!  the 
Lark,"  "Sei  mir  gegriisst,"  "Du  bist  die  Ruh,"  "Ave  Maria," 
"Litany,"  and  others,  are  the  works  of  Schubert  which  will 
live.  Schubert  at  his  best  entrances  us  by  his  wonderful 
flow  of  melody,  his  spontaneity,  his  symmetrical  form, 
which,  however,  is  sometimes  diflfuse.  His  chief  qualities 
lie  in  the  simple  expressiveness  of  his  music,  a  direct  appeal 


SCHUBERT  S    INFLUENCE.  395 

to  sincerity  of  emotion,  and  to  the  sense  of  the  poetic.  He 
began  by  imitating  the  form  and  style  of  Mozart  and  Bee- 
thoven ;  but  from  his  eighteenth  year  onward  he  developed 
an  individuality  entirely  apart.  Despite  the  virtues  of  his 
instrumental  music,  his  great  achievement  was  the  creation 
of  the  German  song,  in  which  department  he  stands  un- 
rivalled in  the  inexhaustibility  of  his  melody,  the  variety 
of  mood  which  they  display,  the  subtlety  and  harmonic 
beauty  of  his  accompaniments,  as  well  as  art  in  creating 
vocal  effects. 

Schubert's  Influence  on  Music. — In  abundance  of  resource, 
poetic  feeling  and  true  imagination,  Schubert  has  brought 
new  forces  into  music.  His  influence  on  romantic  com- 
posers was  widespread  and  deep.  Schumann  was  a 
thorough  admirer  of  Schubert.  Schumann's  songs  could 
hardly  have  come  into  existence  but  for  those  of  Schubert, 
and  the  latter's  short  pieces  for  piano  were  undoubtedly  as 
potent  an  inspiration  for  his  piano  works.  Brahms,  too, 
had  a  real  reverence  for  Schubert,  that  is  plainly  exhibited 
in  his  works.  Despite  the  differences  of  their  artistic  in- 
dividuality, there  are  traces  of  Schubert  in  the  former's 
songs  as  well  as  in  some  of  his  short  piano  pieces.  Liszt's 
partiality  to  Schubert  was  untiring  in  its  zeal.  He  played 
his  piano  music,  transcribed  the  "Hungarian  Divertisse- 
ment," arranged  some  of  the  marches  for  two  hands  and 
for  orchestra;  he  made  a  version  of  the  fantasy  in  C  for 
piano  and  orchestra,  which  is  still  popular;  and,  finally  (per- 
haps his  greatest  service  to  Schubert)  he  transcribed  no  less 
than  fifty-seven  of  his  songs  for  piano.  In  this  form  he 
created  an  interest  in  Schubert  where  the  original  versions 
were  unknown,  and  did  much  to  spread  their  renown.  In 
spite  of  all  shortcomings,  Schubert's  genius  was  so  remark- 
able, and  his  immediate  effect  upon  the  Romantic  movement 
so  apparent  and  his  legacy  to  the  musical  world  so  imper- 
ishable that  it  is  difficult  not  to  agree  with  Sir  George  Grove 
when  he  wrote:  "There  has  never  been  one  like  him  and 
there  never  will  be  another." 


396  the  history  of  music. 

References. 

Grove.- — Dictionary  of   Music  and   ATusicians,  article  on 
Schubert. 

Frost. — Life  of  Schubert. 

Von  Hellborn. — Life  of  Franz  Scliubert. 

Dvorak. — Franz  Schubert.     (Century  Library  of  Music.) 

Questions. 

From  what  rank  in  life  did  Schubert  come? 

Give  the  leading  incidents  in  his  life. 

What  kind  of  man  was  he  physically,  mentally  and  so- 
cially ? 

How  did  Schubert  compose? 

In  what  forms  of  composition  did  Schubert  work? 

What  form  of  composition  did  he  especially  enrich? 

Which  of  his  productions  have  the  greatest  vogue  today? 

What  influence  did  Schubert  exert  on  music? 
•  Who  did  much  to  spread  a  knowledge  of  his  works? 

Name  some  composers  who  have  felt  his  force. 


LESSON  XLIII. 

Weber.     Mendelssohn. 

Schubert's  operas  had  no  appreciable  effect  on  the  Ro- 
mantic composers,  for  the  simple  reason  that  they  were 
never  heard  on  account  of  the  absurdities  of  their  librettos 
and  the  weakness  of  their  stage  situations.  At  about  the 
same  period,  a  slightly  older  comjioser  was  beginning  a 
series  of  works  destined  to  place  German  Opera  on  a  firm 
basis,  to  exercise  a  decided  influence  on  Wagner,  besides 
contributing  not  a  little  to  the  development  of  piano  technic. 

Carl  Maria  Friedrich  Ernst  von  Weber  was  born  at  Eutin, 
December  i8,  1786.  His  father,  a  restless  man  of  many 
talents,  was  a  theatrical  manager  during  Weber's  early 
years,  when  constant  traveling  was  the  rule,  and  music  les- 
sons the  exception.  His  irregular  early  instruction  under 
several  teachers,  of  whom  Michael  Haydn  was  the  most 
eminent,  was  supplemented  by  two  years  of  solid  study 
under  the  gifted  and  eccentric  Abbe  Vogler.  From  1804  to 
1806,  Weber  was  music-director  at  the  Breslau  theatre, 
and  soon  made  a  name  for  himself  as  composer  and  pianist 
as  well  as  conductor.  After  this  he  remained  under  the 
protection  of  the  Duke  of  Wurtemburg,  earning  a  living  by 
giving  lessons,  and  acting  as  secretary  to  the  Duke's  brother. 
During  this  period  he  composed  an  opera  "Silvana,"  over- 
tures, a  cantata,  piano  music,  etc.  Three  years  of  wander- 
ing, chiefly  on  concert  tours,  ensued  after  his  banishment 
from  Wurtemburg  on  account  of  unjustly  suspected  com- 
plicity in  an  intrigue  for  a  position  at  court.  To  these 
years  belong  a  comic  opera,  "Abu  Hassan,"  the  piano  con- 
certos in  C  and  E-flat,  three  concertos  for  clarinet,  the 
piano  sonata  in  C,  etc.  In  1814  and  1815,  he  composed  the 
choruses,  "Lyre  and  Sword,"  and  a  cantata,  "Battle  and 

(397) 


398  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Victory,"  both  the  outcome  of  political  events,  and  widely 
popular  from  their  patriotic  character.  In  18 16,  he  be- 
came music-director  of  the  German  opera  at  Dresden.  He 
revived  interest  in  German  opera,  stimulated  public  support 
and  in  the  following  years  began  the  composition  of  "Der 
Freischiitz,"  an  opera  thoroughly  German  in  its  character 
and  the  keystone  of  Weber's  fame.  It  was  not  finished 
until  1820,  for  in  the  meantime  he  wrote  much  of  his  best 
piano  music,  songs  and  incidental  music  for  a  gipsy  play 
"Preciosa."  Just  after  the  completion  of  his  popular  Con- 
cert-piece for  piano  and  orchestra,  "Der  Freischiitz"  was 
gfiven  for  the  first  time  at  Berlin,  June  18,  182 1,  and  the 
result  was  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs  ever  bestowed  on  a 
German  composer.  It  was  soon  given  in  all  the  principal 
theatres  in  Germany,  including  Dresden,  and  also  in  Vienna. 
In  1823,  Weber's  most  ambitious  opera,  "Euryanthe,"  was 
given  in  Vienna  and  proved  almost  a  failure.  Weber's 
health,  which  had  not  been  satisfactory  for  some  years, 
showed  signs  of  being  undermined.  "Euryanthe"  was  per- 
formed with  greater  success  during  1824  and  1825,  at  Dres- 
den, Leipzig  and  Berlin,  where  Weber  was  almost  too  ill 
to  conduct.  In  spite  of  his  ill-health  he  agreed  to  write  an 
opera  for  the  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  in  London,  beginning 
the  music  to  "Oberon"  early  in  1825  and  finishing  the  last 
number  in  the  spring  of  1826.  The  performances  were 
more  than  satisfactory,  and  Weber  was  received  everywhere 
with  enthusiasm.  His  strength  was  now  entirely  over- 
taxed, and  he  hoped  to  return  to  his  family,  but  he  died 
suddenly  from  consumption,  on  June  4,  1826. 

Weber's  personality  was  pleasing;  of  excellent  birth,  his 
experience  of  the  world  through  his  positions  as  opera- 
director  and  his  frequent  concert-tours,  made  him  an  agree- 
able companion  and  a  favorite  in  society.  He  was  culti- 
vated, well  read  in  philosophy  and  science;  he  possessed 
considerable  literary  and  critical  ability.  In  consequence 
of  his  intellectual  and  social  gifts,  he  was  a  new  type  of 
musician,  who  did  much  to  improve  the  social  status  of  the 
composer.    He  was  a  remarkable  pianist,  with  an  immense 


WEBER  S   INFLUENCE.  399 

command  of  technic,  original  in  style  and  eloquent  in  ex- 
pression ;   also  a  forceful  conductor. 

Weber  the  Composer. — Weber  is,  first  of  all,  the  composer 
of  the  three  operas,  "Der  Freischiitz,"  "Euryanthe"  and 
"Oberon,"  which  are  discussed  in  Lesson  XXXVII.  The 
overtures  to  his  operas  are  his  best  orchestral  works ;  his 
symphonies  and  chamber-music  are  unimportant.  However, 
his  three  concertos  for  clarinet  and  orchestra  are  classics 
in  the  literature  of  that  instrument.  Weber's  songs  are  in- 
teresting for  the  sidelight  they  throw  on  the  development 
of  the  Folk-song  tendency,  but  in  this  line  he  was  entirely 
overshadowed  by  Schubert  and  Schumann.  However, 
Weber's  piano  music  is  exceedingly  important.  The  con- 
certos for  piano  are  seldom  heard,  but  the  "Concert-piece" 
is  still  amply  worth  study.  The  piano  sonatas  (especially 
those  in  C  and  A-flat)  show  great  technical  inventiveness, 
melodic  charm  and  original  effects,  but  they  are  less  happy 
in  point  of  form.  Next  to  the  sonatas  in  interest  comes  the 
delightful  Op.  65,  "Invitation  to  the  Dance,"  so  well-known 
in  Berlioz'  orchestral  version.  In  addition  are  the  "Mo- 
mento  Capriccioso,"  Op.  12,  the  Rondo  in  E-flat,  Op.  62, 
the  "Polacca  Brillante,"  Op.  72,  the  Polonaise,  Op.  21. 
Weber  did  much  to  develop  the  technic  of  the  left  hand ; 
his  piano  compositions  are  thoroughly  pianistic  and  rank 
high  in  the  music  of  the  Romantic  period. 

Weber's  Influence. — Weber's  position  in  the  evolution  of 
the  Romantic  school  is  extremely  important.  In  Opera  his 
exploration  of  the  imaginative  field  in  so  many  directions 
not  only  opened  a  new  vein  in  dramatic  music,  but  its  in- 
fluence was  felt  in  every  branch  of  composition.  Thus  sev- 
eral of  Schumann's  choral  works,  Mendelssohn's  "Midsum- 
mer Night's  Dream"  music,  the  "Walpurgis  Night"  cantata, 
the  concert  overtures,  and  pieces  for  piano  and  orchestra 
are  direct  musical  descendants  of  Weber.  Mendelssohn's 
Concerto  in  G  minor,  the  "Serenade"  and  "Allegro  Giojoso," 
his  scherzos  and  "Songs  Without  Words"  are  the  direct  out- 
come of  Weber's  example.  In  general,  the  technical  style 
of  Weber's  piano  music  was  thoroughly  absorbed  by  both 


400  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Mendelssohn  and,  to  some  extent,  Liszt,  who  edited  Weber's 
sonatas  and  solo  pieces  with  tempting  additions ;  he  tran- 
scribed for  piano  the  overtures  "Jubilee,"  "Freischiitz"  and 
"Oberon,"  and  arranged  the  "Polacca  Brillante,"  Op.  ^2,  for 
piano  and  orchestra.  Liszt  was  very  fond  of  Weber's  music, 
his  piano  style  was  sympathetic  to  him,  his  interpretation  of 
the  Concert-piece,  Op.  79,  never  failed  to  produce  an  over- 
whelming effect.  Finally,  Weber's  influence  on  Wagner 
must  be  mentioned.  Wagner  greatly  admired  Weber's 
dramatic  insight,  his  picturesqueness,  and  especially  the 
poetry  and  novel  color  of  his  orchestral  style 

Mendelssohn. 

The  influence  which  Mendelssohn  exercised  during  two- 
thirds  of  the  19th  century  among  the  more  conservative 
German  musicians  and  in  England  was  nothing  short  of 
extraordinary.  He  undoubtedly  gave  great  impetus  to  the 
study  of  the  classic  masters,  especially  Bach,  and  his  ro- 
mantic tendencies  were  so  balanced  and  controlled  as  to 
gain  a  speedy  recognition  for  his  music.  Today,  Mendels- 
sohn the  classicist  is  less  admired,  and  his  music  will  live 
chiefly  for  its  romantic  qualities. 

Mendelssohn's  Life. — Jakob  Ludwig  Felix  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy  ^  was  born  at  Hamburg,  February  3,  1809.  His 
father,  a  prosperous  banker,  moved  to  Berlin  in  1811.  His 
first  lessons  in  music  were  given  him  by  his  mother,  but  he 
soon  began  to  study  the  piano  with  Ludwig  Berger,  a  pupil 
of  Clementi,  and  composition  with  Zelter.  In  1820,  he 
began  to  compose  systematically.  In  182 1,  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Weber,  and  his  enthusiasm  for  the  romantic 
composer  lasted  all  his  life.  In  1824,  he  formed  a  life-long 
friendship  with  Moscheles,  who  gave  him  piano  lessons. 
Already  he  was  remarkable  for  his  improvisations  and  for 
playing  from  scores.  In  1825,  a  trip  to  Paris  brought  him 
into  contact  with  the  celebrated  musicians  there.     In  this 


*  His  mother's   name,   Bartholdy,   was  added  to  distinguish   this 
branch  from  other  Mendelssohn  families. 


MENDELSSOHN.  4OI 

year  he  composed  his  octet  for  strings,  in  which  his  indi- 
viduality first  asserted  itself  strongly.  In  the  following  sum- 
mer he  wrote  the  overture  to  "A  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,"  a  precocious  evidence  of  originality.  In  1827,  he 
made  the  first  draft  of  his  overture  "A  Calm  Sea  and  a 
Prosperous  Voyage,"  a  further  step  into  the  realm  of  im- 
agination. In  1829,  he  organized  the  first  performance  of 
Bach's  "St.  Matthew  Passion"  music  since  the  composer's 
death.  In  this  year  a  visit  to  England,  where  some  of  his 
compositions  were  performed,  was  followed  by  a  trip  to 
Scotland,  the  Hebrides  and  Wales,  of  which  his  impressions 
are  recorded  in  the  "Hebrides"  overture,  the  "Scotch"  sym- 
phony and  other  works  of  later  years.  He  traveled  much 
during  the  following  years.  In  1833,  after  another  visit  to 
England,  where  his  recently  composed  "Italian"  symphony 
was  played,  he  conducted  a  musical  festival  at  Diisseldorf, 
the  first  of  many  similar  engagements.  During  the  next 
few  years  he  was  constantly  employed  in  conducting,  play- 
ing and  composing,  especially  his  oratorio  "St.  Paul."  In 
1837,  he  married  Miss  Cecile  Jeanrenaud.  From  this  time 
dates  his  second  piano  concerto  in  D  minor,  in  which  are  to 
be  seen  traces  of  Thalberg's  piano  style.  During  the  next 
few  years  Mendelssohn  lived  at  Leipzig.  In  1843,  he  estab- 
lished a  conservatory  at  Leipzig,  long  the  most  celebrated  in 
Europe.  Schumann,  and  later  Moscheles,  were  among  the 
teachers  as  well  as  Mendelssohn  himself.  In  1846,  Men- 
delssohn's oratorio  "Elijah"  was  giv^n  a  triumphant  first 
performance  at  Birmingham  under  the  composer's  direction. 
In  1847,  he  made  his  tenth  visit  to  England  for  performances 
of  "Elijah,"  of  his  completed  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream" 
music  (composed  in  1845),  the  "Scotch"  symphony  and 
other  works.  The  death  of  his  sister,  Fanny,  following  soon 
after  those  of  his  parents,  was  so  great  a  shock  to  him  that 
he  went  to  Switzerland  for  a  rest.  He  returned  improved 
in  health,  but  could  not  consider  commissions  for  new  works 
from  England,  Frankfort  and  Cologne.  He  was  consider- 
ing a  trip  to  Vienna  to  hear  Jenny  Lind  sing  in  "Elijah" 
when  he  was  taken  suddenly  ill  and  died,  November  4,  1847. 


402  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Personal  Traits. — Mendelssohn  is  described  as  having  an 
unusually  animated,  winning  personality.  He  was  immensely 
fond  of  society,  which  he  could  enjoy  without  detriment 
to  his  work.  His  letters  describe  in  detail  his  innumerable 
professional  engagements,  his  round  of  social  festivities  and 
his  journeys  with  equal  fidelity.  Mendelssohn  was  fond  of 
out-of-door  life,  walking,  riding  and  swimming;  he  also 
greatly  enjoyed  dancing.  One  of  his  favorite  relaxations 
was  to  sketch  from  nature  or  paint  in  water-colors.  Men- 
delssohn was  a  remarkable  pianist,  of  an  unaffected  type, 
not  a  virtuoso,  yet  his  interpretations  were  full  of  vigor, 
charm  and  a  thoroughly  rhusical  spirit.  His  improvisations 
were  remarkable  for  their  spontaneous  invention,  brilliance 
and  science  displayed,  and  his  cadenzas  to  Beethoven's  4th 
concerto  and  Mozart's,  in  D  minor,  were  striking  examples 
of  his  skill.  Mendelssohn  was  also  a  remarkable  organist, 
if  English  testimony  is  to  be  credited.  At  all  events,  he 
did  much  to  further  the  knowledge  of  Bach's  organ  works. 
Mendelssohn's  incessant  activity  undoubtedly  hastened  his 
death ;  the  amount  that  he  compressed  into  his  short  life 
was  incredible. 

Compositions. — The  works  most  representative  of  Men- 
delssohn are  the  "Scotch"  and  "Italian"  symphonies,  the 
overtures  "A  Calm  Sea  and  a  Prosperous  Voyage,"  "A 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  "The  Hebrides,"  "Melusina," 
"Ruy  Bias";  the  concertos  and  two  smaller  pieces  for  piano 
and  orchestra ;  the  concerto  for  violin ;  the  octet  for  strings ; 
two  quintets  and  seven  quartets ;  three  quartets  for  piano 
and  strings;  two  trios;  two  sonatas  for  piano  and  'cello; 
for  the  piano,  six  preludes  and  fugues ;  three  sonatas ;  the 
"Serious  Variations" ;  six  books  of  "Songs  Without 
Words" ;  many  smaller  pieces,  including  the  "Capriccio," 
Op.  8 ;  the  "Rondo  Capriccioso,"  Op.  14 ;  the  Caprices,  Op. 
33 ;  the  Scherzo  a  Capriccio  and  others ;  sonatas,  preludes 
and  fugues  for  organ;  the  oratorios  "St.  Paul,"  and 
■'Elijah" ;  music  to  "A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  to  the 
dramas  "Athalie,"  "Antigone"  and  "CEdipus" ;  the  cantata 
"Walpurgis  Night."    He  also  wrote  a  great  deal  of  church 


Felix  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. 


404  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

music,  psalms,  hymns,  motets,  and  cantatas  for  various  occa- 
sions, including  the  "Lobgesang,"  a  symphony-cantata ; 
many  part-songs,  duets  and  songs  for  single  voice  with 
piano  accompaniment. 

Mendelssohn's  Tendencies. — Although  he  wrote  almost  ex- 
clusively in  the  conventional  forms,  Mendelssohn  cannot  be 
regarded  as  a  continuator  of  the  classics.  In  form,  thematic 
development,  counterpoint,  part-writing,  etc.,  he  imitated  the 
letter  of  classic  example  closely,  but  could  not  attain  the 
inner  spirit.  To  some  extent  he  followed  Bach,  Handel, 
Mozart  and  Beethoven,  but  the  chief  source  of  his  individ- 
uality is  the  romanticism  of  Weber.  His  piano  style  is 
adapted  from  that  of  Weber  with  some  extensions  of  his 
own.  Showered  with  praise  as  he  was  during  his  lifetime, 
as  the  possessor  of  all  the  classic  virtues,  we  now  admire 
him  chiefly  for  his  romanticism,  timid  and  fastidious  though 
it  appears  by  comparison  with  the  genuine  innoyations  of 
Berlioz,  Liszt  and  Wagner.  In  the  light  of  the  sturdy 
qualities  of  Brahms,  his  classicism  seems  superficial.  His 
style  was  too  polished  to  admit  of  real  vigor.  Nevertheless, 
Mendelssohn  of  the  two  symphonies,  the  "Midsummer 
Night's  Dream,"  "Melusina"  and  "Hebrides"  overture,  the 
violin  concerto,  the  piano  concerto  in  G  minor,  the  sonatr 
for  piano  and  'cello  in  D,  the  scherzo  of  the  octet,  the 
"Serious  Variations,"  the  Scherzo  a  Capriccio  and  some  half 
a  dozen  of  the  "Songs  Without  Words"  shows  us  a  delicate 
and  charming  individuality  with  the  refinement  and  decided 
perceptions  of  the  poet,  who  regarded  the  world  with  the 
eyes  of  a  romanticist  recording  many  impressions  of  pic- 
turesqueness  and  grace,  if  seldom  of  strength. 

Mendelssohn's  Influence  as  an  Artist. — For  a  time,  Men- 
delssohn's influence  was  unbounded.  His  symphonies  and 
overtures  were  considered  worthy  successors  to  those  of 
Beethoven ;  his  chamber-music  was  equally  valued ;  his 
oratorios  were  regarded  as  on  a  level  with  those  of  Handel ; 
his  piano  music,  especially  the  "Songs  Without  Words," 
were  in  universal  vogue.  His  orchestral  style  contained 
many  novel  features,  it  is  true,  but  his  chamber-music  was 


MENDELSSOHN'S    INFLUENCE.  405 

not  written  in  the  genuine  manner  and  is  far  inferior  to 
that  of  the  later  master,  Brahms.  His  oratorios  contain 
some  notable  choruses  and  airs,  but  on  the  whole  are  only 
faint  imitations  of  the  real  oratorio  style.  Still  they  suf- 
ficed to  form  the  foundation  of  an  English  school  of  com- 
position in  this  form.  His  piano  music  contains  nuich  that 
is  trivial,  but  at  its  best  undoubtedly  did  something  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  deeper  romanticism  of  Schumann,. 
Chopin  and  Liszt.  His  songs  also  have  far  less  variety  of 
mood  and  lyric  inspiration  than  those  of  Schubert  and  Schu- 
mann, but  they  too  acted  as  prophets  of  the  more  vital  crea- 
tions to  follow. 

That  this  reverence  for  Mendelssohn  was  no  mere  in- 
fatuation of  the  moment  but  a  sober  respect  can  best  be 
judged  from  the  diversity  in  nationality  and  temperament 
of  those  who  came  under  his  influence :  Gade,  the  Nor- 
wegian ;  Sterndale  Bennett,  the  English  composer  and 
pianist;  Hiller  and  Reinecke  among  the  Germans,  and 
Rubinstein  from  Russia.  These  names  constitute  but  a  small 
proportion  of  Mendelssohn's  disciples,  his  personality  dom- 
inated musical  England  in  every  branch  of  composition  for 
many  years ;  and  English  composers  are  only  just  beginning 
to  throw  ofif  the  yoke  of  adherence  to  the  traditional  oratorio 
form  as  exhibited  in  "St.  Paul"  and  "Elijah."  Schumann 
admired  Mendelssohn  without  reserve  and  without  a  sug- 
gestion of  jealousy,  although  the  tide  of  popular  favor  neg- 
lected him  for  his  more  easily  understood  contemporary. 
Today,  criticism  has  swung  possibly  too  far  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  Mendelssohn  suffers  from  depreciation. 

References. 

Grove's  and  Riemann's  Dictionaries. — Articles  on  Weber 
and  Mendelssohn. 

Benedict. — Carl  Maria  von  Weber. 

Rockstro. — Life  of  Mendelssohn. 

Lampadius. — Life  of  Mendelssohn. 

Reinecke. — Mendelssohn  (Century  Library  of  Music), 
Mendelssohn's  Letters. 


406  the  history  of  music 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Mention  the  significant  events  in  Weber's  life. 

Describe  Weber  the  man. 

Sketch  the  work  of  Weber  as  a  composer. 

Show  the  influence  of  Weber  upon  music. 

Name  some  of  Weber's  best-known  piano  works. 

What  composers  were  greatly  influenced  by  Weber? 

Give  an  account  of  Mendelssohn's  boyhood,  manhood. 

What  educational  work  in  music  did  Mendelssohn  orig- 
inate ? 

In  what  lines  of  musical  work  did  Mendelssohn  excel? 

Name  representative  compositions  of  Mendelssohn. 

What  composers  did  Mendelssohn  follow? 

What  influence  did  Mendelssohn  exert  on  music? 

For  students  who  wish  to  study  Weber's  characteristics, 
the  Momento  Capriccioso,  Op.  12,  the  "Invitation  to  the 
Dance,"  Op.  65,  the  piano  sonatas  in  C  and  A-flat  are  the 
most  representative,  while  the  overtures  to  "Der  Freischiitz," 
"Euryanthe"  and  "Oberon"  show  his  style  as  a  dramatic 
composer. 

The  following  suggestions  may  aid  the  student  in  his 
study  of  Mendelssohn's  works :  The  "Italian"  and  "Scotch" 
symphonies,  the  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  "Hebrides" 
and  "Melusina"  overtures,  the  Nocturne  and  Scherzo  from 
the  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream"  music,  the  violin  con- 
certo, the  concerto  in  G  minor  and  the  Capriccio  Brillante 
for  piano  and  orchestra,  the  pieces  for  piano.  Op.  7,  Nos.  3 
and  7,  the  Rondo  Capriccioso,  Op.  14,  the  Caprice,  Op.  16, 
No.  2,  the  Prelude  and  Fugue,  Op.  35,  No.  i,  the  Serious 
Variations,  Op.  54,  the  Scherzo  a  Capriccio  without  opus 
number,  and  the  following  "Songs  Without  Words,"  Op. 
19,  Nos.  I,  2,  3,  6;  Op.  38,  Nos.  2,  3,  5 ;  Op.  62,  Nos.  3,  6; 
Op.  67,  No.  4,  and  Op.  102,  No.  3.  Liszt  has  made  an  ex- 
ceedingly effective  transcription  of  Mendelssohn's  song  "On 
the  Wings  of  Song,"  which  is  a  popular  concert  number 
today. 


LESSON  XLIV. 

Robert  Schumann. 

The  Romantic  Movement  before  Schumann.  —  Schubert 
gave  a  decided  impetus  to  the  Romantic  movement  through 
his  spontaneous  melody  and  deep  fund  of  imagination.  He 
infused  poetry  into  the  classic  forms,  his  piano  works  in 
the  small  forms  showed  the  way  to  future  achievement  in 
these  lines,  but  especially  he  founded  German  song,  which 
had  scarcely  been  hinted  at  by  Mozart  and  Beethoven.  Al- 
though Weber  extended  the  province  of  piano  technic,  and 
exhibited  further  possibilities  of  romantic  feeling  in  com- 
bination with  the  rondo  and  sonata  forms,  his  chief  work 
was  the  realization  of  German  opera,  elsewhere  described. 
But  still  another  German  was  destined  to  contribute  richly 
to  romantic  piano  literature,  to  prove  no  mean  successor 
to  Schubert  in  the  province  of  song,  and  to  add  further 
proofs  of  his  genius  in  chamber-music,  choral  works  and 
the  symphony. 

Schumann's  Early  Life.  —  Robert  Alexander  Schumann 
was  born  at  Zwickau,  in  Saxony,  June  8,  1810.  His  father 
was  a  bookseller  with  some  attainments  as  an  author.  Schu- 
mann's gift  for  music  asserted  itself  early.  He  had  piano 
lessons  from  a  local  organist  at  the  age  of  six,  and  began 
to  compose  soon  after.  A  taste  for  improvisation  also  de- 
veloped. For  several  years  his  literary  interests  were  as 
pronounced  as  those  for  music.  He  read  assiduously,  and 
was  especially  devoted  to  poetry.  His  general  education 
was  continued  at  the  Zwickau  Academy,  where  he  studied 
until  1828.  In  1827,  he  came  under  the  joint  influence  of 
the  writings  of  Jean  Paul  (Richter)  the  poet  and  novelist, 
and  of  Schubert's  music,  both  of  which  played  an  important 
part  in  his  mental  and  artistic  growth.    In  1828,  he  entered 

(407) 


408  TIIK    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

the  University  of  Leipzig  with  the  intention  of  studying 
law.  He  kept  up  his  music,  however,  and  not  only  became 
enthusiastic  over  the  clavier  works  of  Bach,  but  took  piano 
lessons  of  Friedrich  Wieck,  a  celebrated  teacher  in  Leipzig. 
In  1829,  Schumann  went  to  Heidelberg.  Here  he  con- 
*-inued  his  law  studies  in  a  desultory  fashion,  but  worked 
jvith  the  greatest  persistence  at  piano  playing.  In  1830, 
he  resolved  to  study  law  with  more  seriousness,  but  it 
was  intensely  repugnant  to  him,  and  after  some  reflec- 
tion, ne  determined,  with  Wieck's  advice,  to  adopt  music 
as  a  profession.  Accordingly,  he  returned  to  Leipzig  to 
study  the  piano  with  Wieck,  but  having  the  misfortune  to 
injure  a  finger  in  his  zeal  for  speedy  perfection,  he  was 
obliged  to  forego  the  career  of  a  virtuoso,  perhaps  to  the 
great  gain  of  music. 

Schumann's  Professional  Career. — He  now  devoted  his 
attention  to  thorough  study  of  composition  with  Heinrich 
Dorn.  In  1834,  Schumann  founded  the  "New  Journal  of 
Music"  in  the  interests  of  a  higher  critical  standard,  and  the 
furtherance  of  worthy  compositions.  During  ten  years  of 
editorship,  Schumann  found  abundant  outlet  for  his  literary 
interests,  and  his  paper  exerted  a  considerable  force  on 
public  opinion.  Two  of  his  greatest  piano  works,  the  Car- 
nival, Op.  9,  and  the  Symphonic  Studies,  Op.  13,  belong 
to  the  year  1834.  During  the  years  1836  and  1837,  he  had 
some  intimacy  wdth  Mendelssohn.  From  1836-39  date  most 
of  Schumann's  important  works  for  the  piano.  In  1840, 
Schumann  married  Wieck's  daughter,  Clara,  the  celebrated 
pianist,  after  several  years'  struggle  to  gain  her  father's 
consent.  Schumann's  marriage  was  the  turning-point  in 
his  artistic  career,  and  his  wife's  sympathy  was  a  great 
stimulus  to  his  creative  activity.  In  the  year  following  his 
marriage,  Schumann  turned  to  song-composing,  producing 
more  than  one  hundred  songs  in  this  period.  In  1841,  he 
gave  himself  up  wholly  to  orchestral  composition,  writing 
his  symphony  in  B-flat,  the  first  draft  of  his  D  minor  sym- 
phony, a  third  work,  afterwards  published  as  Overture, 
Scherzo  and  Finale,  as  well  as  the  first  movement  of  his 


ROBEET   SCHTJJfANN. 


4IO  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

piano  concerto.  In  1842,  he  confined  himself  almost  ex- 
clusively to  chamber-music,  composing  three  string  quar- 
tets, the  masterly  quintet,  Op.  44,  the  quartet,  Op.  47,  for 
piano  and  strings,  and  a  trio.  To  1845  belong  the  "Varia- 
tions" for  two  pianos,  and  a  large  choral  work,  "Paradise 
and  the  Peri."  In  1844,  Schumann  began  the  music  to 
Goethe's  "Faust,"  but  ill-health  interrupted  him  for  more 
than  a  year.  However,  in  1845  he  completed  the  piano  con- 
certo, wrote  several  works  for  pedal  piano,  and  in  1846  fin- 
ished his  second  symphony.  In  1847,  be  began  his  opera 
"Genoveva,"  which  was  not  given  until  1850.  Late  in  1850 
he  went  to  Diisseldorf  to  take  a  position  as  director.  While 
here  he  composed  his  third  symphony.  In  the  following 
years  he  wrote  several  overtures,  works  for  solo  instruments 
and  orchestra,  the  overture  and  incidental  music  to  Byron's 
"Manfred,"  "The  Pilgrimage  of  the  Rose"  and  many  other 
choral  works,  including  a  Mass  and  a  Requiem.  Early  in 
1854,  symptoms  of  a  mental  disorder,  which  had  been  in- 
creasing of  late  years,  culminated  in  an  attempt  at  suicide. 
He  passed  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  in  an  asylum  near 
Bonn,  where  he  died  July  29,  1856. 

Schumann's  Personality. — By  reason  of  his  two-fold  ac- 
tivity as  critic  and  composer,  Schumann  was  a  new  force  in 
music.  Highly  cultivated  in  literature,  philosophy  and 
poetry,  he  possessed  a  keen  and  discerning  critical  taste, 
and  a  literary  style  that  was  picturesque  and  eloquent.  > 
Schumann  was  shy  and  reserved  by  nature,  he  talked  little 
but  observed  and  reflected  abundantly.  He  was  never  fond 
of  society,  and  as  years  went  by  he  lived  more  and  more 
like  a  hermit,  absorbed  in  composition  and  family  life.  For 
ten  years,  however,  he  was  in  touch  with  the  public  by 
reason  of  his  editorship  of  the  "New  Journal,"  and  by  his 
championship  therein  of  all  that  was  good  and  progressive 
in  the  music  of  the  day,  did  much  for  the  encouragement  j 
of  true  art.  His  articles  on  Schubert,  Mendelssohn,  Gade, 
Chopin,  Berlioz,  Liszt,  Brahms  and  others  formed  a  new 
epoch  in  musical  criticism,  and  helped  the  cause  of  Roman- 
ticism immeasurably.    No  estimate  of  Schumann's  character 


SCHUMANN    THE    COMPOSER.  4II 

is  complete  without  taking  into  account  these  distinct 
tendencies  as  critic  and  composer.  His  collected  writings 
give  a  graphic  illustration  of  his  views  on  music,  and  form 
a  supplement  to  his  personality  as  expressed  in  his  music. 

Schumann's  Compositions. — Schumann's  most  representa- 
tive works  include  four  symphonies  and  the  "Overture, 
Scherzo  and  Finale,"  the  overtures  "Genoveva"  and  "Man- 
fred" ;  three  string  quartets,  a  piano  quintet,  a  piano  quar 
tet,  three  piano  trios  and  two  sonatas  for  piano  and  violin ; 
the  music  to  "Faust"  and  "Manfred";  "Paradise  and  the 
Peri,"  "The  Pilgrimage  of  the  Rose"  and  other  works  for 
solos,  chorus  and  orchestra ;  more  than  two  hundred  songs ; 
the  piano  concerto  and  two  smaller  works  for  piano  and  or- 
chestra, besides  a  monumental  series  of  works  for  piano 
alone.  In  addition  there  are  duets,  part-songs,  choruses, 
pieces  for  piano  duet,  a  concert  piece  for  four  horns  and 
orchestra,  a  concerto  for  'cello  and  orchestra,  a  fantasy  for 
violin  and  orchestra,  besides  short  pieces  for  oboe,  viola, 
clarinet  and  'cello  with  piano  accompaniment,  the  opera 
"Genoveva,"  the  overtures  "The  Bride  of  Messina,"  "Julius 
Csesar"  and  "Herman  and  Dorothea,"  the  Mass,  Op.  147, 
and  the  Requiem,  Op.  148. 

It  will  be  seen  that  Schumann  wrote  much  in  the  sonata 
or  symphonic  form,  yet  his  command  of  it  was  far  from 
complete.  In  this  respect  and  in  instrumentation,  Schumann 
was  inferior  to  his  romantic  contemporary,  Mendelssohn. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  was  far  more  original  and  his  music 
has  a  much  greater  depth  of  sentiment,  a  higher  sense  of 
beauty  and  a  noble  human  breadth  that  forms  one  of  the 
highest  points  in  the  development  of  romanticism.  What 
he  lacked  in  technical  attainment,  he  more  than  made  up  in 
beauty  of  themes,  vigor  and  spontaneity  of  treatment,  and 
thorough-going  romanticism  in  moods.  It  is  difficult  to  say 
which  is  his  best  symphony,  they  all  have  merits  of  their 
own;  of  the  overtures,  that  to  "Genoveva"  (almost  the  only 
surviving  portion  of  the  opera)  and  "Manfred"  are  ex- 
amples of  Schumann's  ardent  romanticism  at  its  best.  The 
string-quartets  are  not  always  in   quartet  style  and  their 


412  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

structure  is  sometimes  open  to  criticism,  but  they  are  indi- 
vidual and  contain  much  that  is  beautiful.  The  piano-quar- 
tet is  a  genial  work  of  great  spontaneity  that  took  Europe 
by  storm.  It  was  immediately  hailed  as  the  greatest  work 
since  Beethoven,  although  its  position  might  now  be  assai-led 
by  the  piano  quintets  by  Brahms  and  Cesar  Franck.  The 
piano  quartet,  as  well  as  the  quintet,  is  a  pioneer  in  this  form 
of  chamber-music,  but  has  not  the  same  flow  of  melody 
as  the  former.  The  trios  and  sonatas  for  violin  and  piano, 
although  not  on  a  level  with  the  other  chamber-music,  have 
nevertheless  striking  qualities  to  commend  them.  Schu- 
mann's choral  music  is  decidedly  unequal,  but  the  "Paradise 
and  the  Peri,"  and  portions  of  the  "Faust"  and  "Manfred" 
music  display  the  same  breadth  of  human  emotion  so  char- 
acteristic of  his  best  music.  In  the  field  of  song,  Schumann 
is  a  worthy  successor  to  Schubert.  Schumann's  songs  have 
not  the  inexhaustible  melody  of  Schubert's,  but  they  are 
richer  harmonically,  the  accompaniments  more  individual, 
and  the  character  of  the  poems  more  subtly  brought  out. 

Schumann's  Contribution  to  the  Short  Piece.  —  Perhaps 
Schumann's  most  conspicuous  service  to  music  lies  in  his 
development  of  the  short  piece.  In  this  direction  he  has 
cultivated  a  branch  of  expression,  with  an  originality,  a 
freedom  and  a  richness  that  have  no  parallel  in  the  Romantic 
movement  except  in  Chopin.  Mendelssohn  undoubtedly  did 
something  for  the  short  piece,  but  his  "Songs  Without 
Words"  are  limited  to  a  few  types,  while  Schumann  made 
the  short  form  serve  every  variety  of  expression.  He  un- 
doubtedly owed  much  to  the  examples  of  Schubert  with  his 
waltzes  and  other  dances,  the  impromptus  and  moments 
musicals,  but  in  richness  of  resource  and  spontaneity  of  ex- 
pression he  went  much  beyond  the  older  master.  His  piano 
style  is  highly  distinctive;  it  does  not  offer  much  that  is 
new  in  finger  technic,  but  in  polyphonic  treatment  of  mel- 
odies, in  striking  rhythms  and  harmonic  effects  and  in 
original  use  of  the  pedal  it  is  remarkable.  Both  in  the  sets 
of  small  pieces,  such  as  the  "Papillons,"  Op.  2,  the  "Davids- 
biindler  Dances,"  Op.  6,  the  "Carnival,"  Op.  9,  or  the  Flower 


SCHUMANN  S    CONTRIBUTION    TO    THE    SHORT    PIECE.       413 

Pieces,  Op.  19,  and  in  the  Xovellettes,  Op.  21,  the  h^antasy 
Pieces,  Op.  12,  the  Symphonic  Studies,  Op.  15,  the  Toccata. 
Op.  7,  and  the  great  Fantasy,  Op.  17,  Schumann  displays  a 
wealth  of  imaginative  poetry  that  makes  him  one  of  the 
greatest  romanticists  in  piano  music.  His  piano  works  from 
Op.  2  to  Op.  28  are  matchless,  although  the  sonatas,  Op.  1 1 
and  22,  suffer  from  lack  of  coherence.  The  variations  for 
two  pianos,  Op.  46,  and  the  concerto.  Op.  54,  are  models 
of  their  type.  The  "Album  for  the  Young,"  Op.  68,  the 
"Forest  Scenes,"  Op.  82,  the  "Varied  Leaves,"  Op.  99,  and 
the  "Album  Leaves,"  Op.  124,  are  all  admirable,  and  contain 
a  great  variety  of  short  pieces,  many  of  which  were  com- 
posed early  in  his  career.  Schumann's  songs  and  piano 
pieces  are  the  best  examples  of  his  contribution  to  roman- 
ticism. 

Schubert  and  Jean  Paul  Richter  (the  romantic  novelist 
and  poet)  were  the  earliest  influences  in  Schumann's  studies, 
nevertheless  he  admired  Beethoven  greatly,  and  shut  him- 
self up  with  his  quartets  as  a  preparation  for  his  own 
chamber-music.  As  a  student  in  Leipzig,  he  was  devoted 
to  Bach's  clavier  works,  and  later  in  life  he  renewed  his 
enthusiasm  for  Bach  while  writing  the  works  for  pedal 
piano  and  the  piano  fugues.  Fugal  form  and  romantic 
sentiment  do  not  go  well  together,  however,  and  Schumann's 
compositions  in  this  form  are  not  his  greatest.  Schumann's 
influence  is  strongest  upon  composers  of  songs  and  short 
piano  pieces.  It  would  be  difficult  to  name  even  the  most 
representative,  but  the  most  signal  example  is  Brahms, 
whose  songs  and  piano  pieces  could  hardly  exist  but  for 
Schumann.  In  many  of  the  modern  Russian  composers  we 
find  distinct  traces  of  Schumann,  as  well  as  among  the 
Frenchmen  Gabriel  Faure  and  Vincent  d'Indy,  the  Gerrftan 
Adolf  Jensen,  the  Italian  Sgambati,  and  many  others. 

Compositions  Suggested  for  Study. — The  symphonies,  over- 
tures, the  chamber-music  and  the  larger  choral  works  are  all 
characteristic  of  Schumann  at  his  best,  but  for  more  detailed 
study  of  his  piano  music  and  songs  the  following  are  sug- 
gested. Of  the  piano  works, the  "Papillons,"Op.  2,  the  "Pae- 


414  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

anini  Caprice,"  Op.  3,  No.  2 ;  the  "Davidsbiindler"  dances, 
Op.  6,  Nos.  I,  2,  4,  5,  7,  9,  II,  12,  16,  17,  18;  the  "Toccata," 
Op.  7;  the  "Carnival,"  Op.  9;  the  Sonata,  Op.  11,  especially 
the  "Aria"  and  "Scherzo";  the  "Fantasy  Pieces,"  Op.  12, 
entire  except  the  "Fable";  the  "Symphonic  Studies,"  Op. 
13;  the  "Scenes  from  Childhood,"  Op.  15,  Nos.  i,  2,  4,  5, 
7,  9  and  13;  the  "Kreisleriana,"  Op.  16,  Nos.  i,  2,  3,  4,  5 
and  8;  the  "Arabesque,"  Op.  18;  the  "Flower  Pieces,"  Op. 
19;  the  "Humoreskes,"  Op.  20;  the  "Novellettes,"  Op.  21, 
Nos.  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  7  and  8;  the  Sonata,  Op.  22;  the  "Night 
Piece,"  Op.  23,  No.  4;  the  "Carnival  Prank,"  Op.  26,  Nos. 
I  2,  3  and  4;  the  "Romance,"  Op.  28,  No.  2;  the  Varia- 
tions for  two  pianos.  Op.  46;  the  Concerto,  Op.  54;  the 
"Album  for  the  Young,"  Op.  68;  "The  Happy  Farmer," 
"May,  Lovely  May,"  "First  Loss,"  "Small  Romance,"  "Re- 
membrance," November  4,  1847  (the  date  of  Mendelssohn's 
death)  ;  "Canonic  Song,"  "Theme,"  two  pieces  without 
name,  "Northern  Song";  Op.  76,  Nos.  i,  3  and  4;  "Forest 
Scenes,"  Op.  82;  "Entrance,"  "Lovely  Flower,"  "Inn," 
"Bird  as  Prophet,"  "Hunting  Song,"  "Elves" ;  Op.  99,  Al- 
bum Leaf,  and  Novellette;  "Album  Leaves,"  Op.  124, 
Nos.  I,  2,  3,  4,  10,  13,  15  and  17.  Of  the  songs:  "Dedica- 
tion," "The  Nut  Tree,"  "The  Lotus  Flower,"  "Highland 
Cradle  Song,"  "Two  Venetian  Songs,"  "Thou  Art  like  a 
Flower,"  and  "Conclusion,"  "The  Boy  with  the  Magic 
Horn,"  "To  the  Sunshine,"  "Forest  Dialogue,"  "Moon- 
light," "Spring  Night,"  "Woman's  Love  and  Life,"  "Spring 
Journey,"  "In  the  Wondrous  Month  of  May,"  "From  My 
Tears,"  "The  Roses,  the  Lily,"  "When  I  Look  into  Thine 
Eyes,"  "I  Grudge  it  Not,"  "The  Two  Grenadiers,"  "Folk- 
Song." 

References. 

Grove's  and  Riemann's  Dictionaries. — Article  on  Schu- 
mann. 

Grieg. — Robert  Schumann  (Century  Library  of  Music), 
Hadow. — Studies  in  Modern  Music.     (Chapter  on  Schu- 
mann.) 


LESSON    HELPS.  415 

Maitland. — Schumann. 
Wasielewski. — Life     of  Schumann. 

Finck. — Chopin  and  Other  Essays.  (Chapter  on  Schu- 
mann.) 

Questions. 

Who  represent  the  Romantic  movement  prior  to  Schu- 
mann? 

Give  the  important  events  in  Schumann's  early  Hfe. 

Give  the  important  events  in  Schumann's  professional 
career. 

Give  an  account  of  Schumann  as  a  man  and  as  a  critic. 

How  did  Schumann  help  in  musical  progress? 

What  composers  influenced  him  in  his  development? 

In  what  forms  did  Schumann  write? 

Name  representative  works  in  the  different  forms. 

What  contribution  did  Schumann  make  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  short  piano  piece? 

What  composers  did  Schumann  influence? 


Fbeuebic  Chopin. 


LESSON  XLV. 

Frederic  Chopin. 

Schumann  and  Chopin. — Among  Schumann's  many  able 
reviews  of  new  music,  showing  the  keenest  critical  insight. 
none  exhibit  a  more  just  appreciation  of  an  original  tal- 
ent than  his  article  on  some  variations  by  a  young  com- 
poser who  was  destined  to  exert  so  deep  and  widespread 
an  influence  on  piano  style  and  piano  composition.  Chopin's 
romanticism,  somewhat  affected  at  first  by  both  ITumme) 
and  Field,  is  one  of  the  most  individual  developments  of  the 
entire  period. 

Chopin's  Early  Life. — Frederic  Chopin  was  born  at  Zel- 
azowa-Wola,  near  Warsaw,  in  Poland,  on  February  22,  18 10. 
His  father,  who  had  served  in  various  positions  as  a  teacher, 
finally  established  a  boarding-school  in  Warsaw.  Chopin 
showed  great  sensitiveness  towards  music  at  an  early  age. 
His  first  lessons  on  the  piano  were  given  him  by  a  Polish 
teacher  of  some  celebrity,  Adalbert  Zwyny.  He  soon  be 
came  famous  as  a  pianist,  and  from  the  age  of  nine,  played 
constantly  at  the  houses  of  the  nobility,  and  was  eagerly  re- 
ceived by  them.  In  1824,  he  entered  the  Warsaw  Lyceum 
in  order  to  pursue  his  general  studies.  About  the  same 
time  he  began  lessons  in  composition  with  Eisner,  who  had 
a  high  reputation  as  a  teacher.  He  had  already  composed 
pieces  for  the  piano  on  his  own  account,  and  continued  with 
such  success  that  as  early  as  1825  his  Op.  i,  a  Rondo,  was 
published.  In  1827,  he  left  the  Lyceum,  and  gave  thereafter 
all  his  time  to  playing  and  composing.  Soon  after,  he  made 
great  strides  in  composition,  and  many  of  his  studies  and 
smaller  pieces,  as  well  as  his  two  concertos,  belong  to  this 
period,  or  were  begun  then.  Early  in  1829,  Hummel  played 
in  Warsaw,  and  the  influence  of  his  piano  style  is  evident 

(417) 


4l8  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

in  the  works  of  Chopin  for  some  time  to  come.  Later  in 
this  year,  Chopin  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  gave  two  con- 
certs, winning  instant  recognition  both  as  pianist  and  com- 
poser. After  his  return  to  Warsaw  he  continued  to  com- 
pose much. 

Chopin's  Manhood. — A  second  visit  to  Vienna  occurred 
toward  the  end  of  1830.  He  gave  concerts,  came  into  con- 
tact with  many  musicians,  and  even  found  time  to  compose; 
but  being  dissatisfied  with  conditions  in  Vienna,  determined 
to  go  to  Paris.  Early  in  183 1,  after  giving  concerts  on  the 
way,  he  arrived  at  Paris,  which  was  henceforth  to  be  his 
home.  Here  he  was  soon  thrown  with  many  of  the  leading 
musicians,  his  playing  caused  an  immediate  sensation,  and 
as  at  Warsaw,  he  was  welcomed  in  the  most  exclusive  so- 
ciety. In  1832,  he  began  to  acquire  fame  as  a  piano  teacher, 
especially  of  pupils  from  the  aristocracy.  From  1833  to 
1835,  his  compositions  began  to  appear,  and  gained  him 
much  approval  as  a  composer.  In  1835,  he  went  to  Leipzig, 
where  he  saw  Wieck  and  his  daughter,  afterwards  Clara 
Schumann,  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann.  In  1837,  he  met 
Madame  George  Sand,  the  famous  writer,  whose  influence 
on  his  life  was  so  great.  During  this  year  the  first  sinister 
symptoms  of  ill-health  made  their  appearance.  With  the 
idea  of  benefiting  his  health,  Chopin  passed  the  winter  of 
1838-39  on  the  island  of  Majorca,  with  Madame  Sand  and 
her  two  children.  The  climate  had  a  bad  effect  upon  him; 
he  could  compose  but  little,  and  the  condition  of  his  lungs 
obliged  a  return  to  France.  He  was  so  ill  as  to  be  obliged 
to  spend  several  months  at  Marseilles,  recuperating.  After 
a  summer  at  Nohant,  Mme.  Sand's  country  home,  he  was 
again  at  Paris  in  the  fall  of  1839.  From  1840  to  1848,  he 
lived  in  Paris,  with  occasional  visits  to  Nohant  in  the  sum- 
mer, teaching  as  much  as  his  health  would  allow,  passing 
much  time  in  the  most  aristocratic  society.  He  seldom 
played  in  public,  and  would  only  play  for  pupils,  or  when 
persuaded  by  devoted  friends  to  display  his  extraordinary 
gifts  as  a  pianist.  During  these  years,  however,  his  health 
grew  more  and  more  precarious. 


CHOPIN  S    PERSONALITY.  4I9 

The  Last  Years  of  Chopin.  —  In  1847,  the  intimacy  of 
Chopin  and  Madame  Sand  came  to  an  end,  for  various 
causes,  but  largely  because  of  a  character  caricatured  from 
Chopin  in  one  of  Madame  Sand's  novels,  and  because  she 
was  tired  of  taking  care  of  him.  Ill  as  he  was,  he  went  to 
England,  after  a  farewell  concert  in  Paris,  arriving  in  the 
spring  of  1848.  He  gave  two  concerts  in  London  with  some 
success,  besides  playing  at  friends'  houses.  He  went  to 
Scotland  at  the  instance  of  a  pupil.  Miss  Stirling,  gave  con- 
certs at  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  besides  one  in  the  interval 
at  Manchester.  During  this  entire  tour  he  suffered  greatly 
from  ill-health  and  exhaustion,  and  after  one  more  appear- 
ance in  London,  he  returned  to  Paris,  exceedingly  ill,  in 
January,  1849.  He  was  not  able  to  teach  and  was  obliged 
to  depend  upon  the  generosity  of  friends ;  among  them  his 
pupil,  Miss  Stirling.  After  several  months  of  hopeless 
struggle  to  regain  his  health,  he  died  of  consumption  on 
October   17,    1849,  surrounded  by  devoted   friends. 

Chopin's  Personality. — Chopin  was  extremely  refined  and 
delicate  by  nature.  He  was  fastidious  about  the  color  and 
fit  of  his  clothes,  the  furnishing  and  arrangement  of  his 
rooms,  and  other  details  of  every-day  life.  He  was  always 
extremely  fond  of  society  and  moved  in  the  highest  circles. 
As  a  rule,  he  was  averse  to  seeing  much  of  musicians,  in 
spite  of  his  friendship  with  Liszt,  Hiller,  Berlioz  and  Schu- 
mann. As  a  young  man  he  was  fond  of  dancing,  acting  and 
practical  jokes ;  though  sensitive,  he  was  well  and  strong, 
and  able  to  endure  rough  stage-journeys.  He  was  a  capital 
mimic  all  his  life,  and  a  witty  companion  who  pleased  by  his 
gentle  irony  or  sarcasm.  He  was  extremely  reserved  in  spite 
of  his  sociability,  his  intimate  friends  (either  Polish  or  fa- 
vorite pupils)  even  quarrelled  as  to  which  knew  him  best. 
He  was  genuinely  confidential  only  in  his  music.  Chopin 
was  exceedingly  patriotic;  he  was  always  ready  to  appear 
in  concert  in  behalf  of  Polish  refugees,  he  corresponded 
untiringly  with  his  Polish  friends,  and  gave  many  proofs 
of  his  devotion  to  Poland,  which  he  never  forgot  in  spite 
of  years  of  absence. 


420  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Chopin  as  Pianist. — Chopin  was  a  pianist  of  extraordi- 
nary distinction,  in  spite  of  the  preeminence  of  Liszt.  His 
technic,  founded  in  the  school  of  Clementi  and  Cramer,  with 
great  attention  to  Bach,  w^as  influenced  to  some  extent  by 
Hummel  and  Field,  but  later  became  highly  original,  and 
expressive  of  great  individuality.  Although  he  possessed 
great  brilliancy,  the  most  prominent  trait  in  his  playing  was 
its  all-pervading  and  inexhaustible  fund  of  poetry.  It  had 
nothing  harsh,  unmelodious  or  ungraceful.  His  sense  of 
rhythm  was  unusually  piquant,  and  one  of  its  features  was 
the  skilful  use  of  tempo  rubato,  a  slight  variance  from  strict 
time  without  disturbing  it  fundamentally.  In  later  life, 
Chopin  became  disinclined  to  appear  in  public,  his  per- 
formances were  limited  to  the  drawing-rooms  of  aristocratic 
friends,  where  he  would  play  or  improvise  for  hours.  He 
was  never  a  robust  pianist  at  his  strongest,  afd  the  trans- 
parent delicacy  of  his  playing  during  his  last  years  was 
almost  incredible. 

Chopin's  Compositions.  —  Chopin's  music  constitutes  the 
true  revelation  of  himself.  His  life,  not  full  of  action,  was, 
however,  rich  in  emotion  and  sentiment  of  great  variety 
and  subtlety.  Its  mainsprings  were  his  patriotic  love  of 
Poland  and  everything  connected  with  it,  and  the  poetic 
impressionability  of  his  temperament,  which  were  all  trans- 
ferred to  his  music.  Although  Chopin  composed  a  number 
of  works  in  which  he  uses  the  orchestra,  some  chamber- 
music,  and  a  set  of  Polish  songs,  he  was  first  and  last  a 
composer  for  the  piano.  In  addition  to  the  works  referred 
to,  he  wrote  three  sonatas,  four  ballades,  four  scherzos,  ten 
polonaises,  fourteen  waltzes,  twenty-eight  studies,  fifty-five 
mazurkas,  twenty-five  preludes,  seventeen  nocturnes,  three 
impromptus  and  a  fantasie-impromptu,  three  rondos,  be- 
sides a  superb  fantasy,  a  concert  allegro,  a  barcarolle,  a  ber- 
ceuse, a  tarantelle,  a  bolero,  a  rondo  for  two  pianos,  and  a 
few  trifles. 

Of  his  two  concertos,  the  second  published  (although 
the  first  composed)  is  the  finer.  It  is  riper  and  more  poetic, 
the  slow  movement  reaches  a  high  point  of  lyric  style,  and 


CHOPIN  S    NATIONAL    SPIRIT.  42 1 

the  treatment  of  form  throughout  the  concerto  is  less 
awkward.  Chopin  is  not  at  home  in  the  sonata  form,  the 
concertos  are  interesting  in  spite  of,  rather  than  on  account 
of,  their  treatment  of  form.  The  piano  sonatas.  Op.  35  and 
58,  have  faults  of  structure,  and  occasional  incoherence,  but 
they  are  so  full  of  poetry,  romantic  melody  and  dramatic 
mood  that  one  almost  overlooks  their  technical  shortcomings. 

Chopin  Most  Successful  in  Free  Forms. — The  most  rep- 
resentative works  of  Chopin  are  those  in  which  he  adopts 
no  conventional  form,  but  follows  his  own  instinct  entirely. 
Thus,  in  his  ballades,  scherzos,  and  especially  in  the  fantasy, 
Op.  49,  one  finds  freedom  of  invention  and  variety  of  treat- 
ment combined  with  logical  development  and  real  coherence. 
The  ballads  are  dramatic  poems  in  which  sentiment  and 
virtuosity  are  happily  united.  The  scherzos  are  original 
conceptions  quite  distinct  from  the  accepted  type ;  they 
have  bold  outlines,  variety  of  mood  and  demand  virtuosity 
in  their  performance.  The  fantasy  is  instructive  in  its 
logical  structure,  there  is  no  sign  of  the  constraint  of  the 
sonatas,  and  its  contents  are  both  dramatic  on  a  large  scale 
and  lyric  by  contrast.  The  impromptus  are  shorter  pieces 
of  a  lyric  nature,  although  the  element  of  virtuosity  is  not 
lacking.  The  nocturnes  are  lyric  pieces  of  simple  form 
but  intimate  style.  Their  general  plan  was  at  first  copied 
from  Field,  but  the  imitator  went  so  far  ahead  of  his  model 
as  almost  to  eclipse  it.  Some  of  them  portray  idyllic  moods, 
others  are  sentimental  or  even  dramatic  in  their  outlines. 
The  studies,  Op.  lo  and  25,  epitomize  in  a  remarkable  way 
Chopin's  technical  innovations,  and  piano  style.  They  are 
brilliant,  poetic  and  highly  dramatic  by  turns,  and  in  their 
contents  are  the  most  musical  studies  composed  up  to  their 
time. 

National  Spirit  in  Chopin's  Music. — Chopin,  the  patriot, 
was  devoted  to  the  dances  and  Folk-melodies  of  his  own 
country.  He  was  thoroughly  national  as  a  composer ;  hence 
in  some  respects  his  mazurkas  and  polonaises  are  the  most 
characteristic  of  his  compositions.  The  mazurkas  with  their 
vital  rhythms  and  novel  harmonies,  contain  much  poetry 


422  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

of  mood  and  variety  of  expression  within  small  limits.  The 
polonaise,  as  treated  by  Chopin,  was  less  a  dance  form,  and 
more  an  independent  form  with  characteristic  rhythms.  The 
polonaises,  Op.  44  and  53,  are  virtually  patriotic  poems. 
The  preludes  are  sketches  of  varying  size ;  some  are  gen- 
uine lyrics;  some  frankly  technical  in  their  object;  others 
have  a  distinct  touch  of  the  dramatic.  Some  of  the  waltzes 
suggest  the  salon,  but  in  others  Chopin  has  individualized 
the  type  until  it  has  risen  above  its  origin.  Among  the 
single  pieces,  the  Concert  Allegro  is  large  in  dimensions, 
very  interesting  technically  and  musically.  The.  Barcarolle, 
in  nocturne-form  on  a  larger  scale,  is  almost  heroic  in  its 
outlines,  and  a  superb  example  of  his  mature  style.  An- 
other piece  equally  deserving  of  distinction  is  the  Berceuse, 
an  ingenious  series  of  variations  on  a  persistent  bass.  The 
Tarantelle  and  Bolero  are  merely  fascinating  salon  pieces. 

Of  the  youthful  works  with  orchestra,  the  variations  on 
a  theme  from  Mozart's  "Don  Juan"  are  more  interesting 
from  the  novelty  of  their  piano  styles  than  as  variations; 
the  Fantasie  on  Polish  themes  attracts  attention  chiefly  on 
account  of  its  Folk-song  character,  while  the  "Krakowiak" 
rondo  is  remarkable  for  its  spirited  national-dance  rhythms. 
The  orchestral  accompaniments  to  these  pieces  are  not  sig- 
nificant; in  fact,  Chopin's  use  of  the  orchestra  was  his 
weakest  point.  The  Polish  songs  are  unequal,  and  at  best 
add  little  to  his  fame.  Liszt,  however,  has  transcribed  six, 
of  which  two  are  frequently  heard  in  concert,  while  Sgambati 
has  arranged  one. 

Originality  and  Freshness  of  Invention. — The  most  extra- 
ordinary trait  of  Chopin  as  a  composer  is  that,  in  spite  of 
the  limitations  imposed  by  repeating  the  same  form  over 
and  over  again,  he  is  almost  inexhaustible  in  variety  of  ex- 
pression. As  the  poet  of  lyric  mood  he  accomplished  al- 
most as  much  as  Schumann  for  the  development  of  the 
short  piece,  while  in  his  longer  pieces  of  dramatic  mood 
and  large  contours  he  has  shown  that  the  sonata-form  is 
not  the  only  structure  by  which  to  convey  heroic  sentiment. 
His  was  the  most  subtle  originality,  the  most  personal  style 


REPRESENTATIVE    COMPOSITIONS.  423 

which  Stamped  itself  indeHbly  on  nearly  every  composi- 
tion. He  immeasurably  broadened  the  technical  treatment 
of  the  piano,  not  only  as  a  virtuoso,  but  in  the  direction  of 
variety  of  expression,  delicate  accentuation  and  exquisite 
tone.  Among  romantic  composers  he  has  done  more  for 
the  advancement  of  piano  style  than  anyone  except  Liszt. 
In  spite  of  the  latter's  gigantic  achievement,  the  value  of 
Chopin's  contribution  is  still  unimpaired.  From  the  point 
of  view  of  expression,  Chopin  is  more  individual  even  than 
Schumann,  but  the  honors  as  the  most  important  composer 
for  the  piano  during  the  Romantic  period  must  be  divided 
between  them.  Chopin's  influence  has  been  immense  not 
only  on  the  composers  and  pianists  of  France  and  Germany 
but  also  markedly  among  living  composers  in  Russia. 
Chopin  is  the  preeminent  poet  of  the  piano. 

Eepresentative  Compositions. — The  following  list  for  the 
student  contains  the  works  and  pieces  most  thoroughly  char- 
acteristic of  his  genius:  The  sonatas,  Op.  35  and  38;  the 
scherzos.  Op.  20,  31  and  39;  the  ballades.  Op.  23,  38,  47 
and  52 ;  the  polonaises.  Op.  22,  26,  40,  44  and  53 ;  the 
waltzes.  Op.  18,  Op.  34,  Nos.  i  and  2 ;  Op.  42,  Op.  64,  Nos. 

1,  2,  and  Op.  69,  No.  i;  the  studies,  Op.  10,  Nos.  i,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  6,  7,  10  and  12;  Op.  25,  Nos.  i,  2,  3,  5,  6,  7,  9,  11 
and  12;    the  mazurkas.  Op.  6,  Nos.  i,  2;    Op.  7,  Nos.  i, 

2,  3;  Op.  17,  Nos.  2,  3,  4;  Op.  24,  Nos.  I,  3,  4;  Op.  30, 
Nos.  2,  4;  Op.  33,  Nos.  I,  3,  4;  Op.  41,  Nos.  i,  2;  Op. 
56,  No.  2 ;  Op.  59,  Nos.  2  and  3 ;  Op.  63,  No.  3 ;  Op.  68, 
No.  2;  the  nocturnes,  Op.  9,  Op.  15,  Nos,  2,  3;  Op.  27, 
Op.  37,  Op.  48,  No.  I ;  Op.  55,  Op.  62,  No.  i ;  the  preludes, 
Op.  28,  Nos.  I,  3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  9,  II,  15,  16,  17,  18,  20,  21, 
23  and  24 ;  the  prelude.  Op.  45 ;  the  impromptus.  Op.  29, 
^P-  35'  ^P-  5I'  and  the  Fantaisie-Impromptu,  Op.  66;  the 
Fantaisie,  Op.  49 ;  the  Tarentelle,  Op.  43 ;  the  Berceuse,  Op. 
57 ;  the  Barcarolle,  Op.  60,  and  the  Concert  Allegro,  Op.  46 


424  the  history  of  music. 

References. 

Grove's  and  Riemann's  Dictionaries. — Article  on  Chopin. 
Finck. — Chopin  and  Other  Musical  Essays. 
Hadow.  —  Studies    in    Modern    Music.       (Chapter    on 
Chopin.) 

Huneker. — Chopin :   The  Man  and  His  Music. 
Niecks. — Frederic  Chopin. 

Questions. 

Give  an  account  of  Chopin's  early  life. 

Name  the  important  events  in  his  manhood  and  later  life. 

What  were  the  striking  traits  of  Chopin  as  a  man? 

What  were  Chopin's  qualities  as  a  pianist? 

In  what  forms  did  Chopin  compose? 

In  what  form  was  Chopin  most  successful? 

In  which  of  his  compositions  is  the  national  spirit  strongly 
evident  ? 

What  characteristics  do  we  note  in  Chopin  as  a  composer  ? 

Name  some  representative  compositions. 

What  composer  influenced  Chopin's  piano  style  in  his 
early  life? 

What  celebrated  musicians  were  friends  of  Chopin? 


LESSON  XLVI. 

Franz  Liszt. 

The  piano  music  of  Chopin  and  Schumann  reached  the 
highest  level  attained  during  the  Romantic  period,  in  subtle 
originality  of  style  and  deep  human  sentiment,  respectively. 
Notwithstanding  their  preeminence  in  these  particulars,  a 
master  was  destined  to  come  who  summed  up  the  entire 
development  of  piano  technic  in  his  achievements,  the  great- 
est virtuoso  of  the  century,  to  whose  influence  all  piano 
olaying  since  has  been  obliged  to  acknowledge  its  indebted- 
ness. In  addition,  his  services  in  breaking  away  from  sym- 
phonic tradition,  in  achieving  propaganda  for  various  com- 
posers of  epoch-making  works,  including  Wagner,  in  giving 
up  himself  as  teacher  without  remuneration,  are  equally 
significant. 

Liszt's  Early  Life. — Franz  Liszt  was  born  October  22, 
181 1,  at  Raiding,  Hungary.  His  mother  was  of  Austrian 
birth;  his  father,  a  Hungarian,  occupying  an  official  posi- 
tion on  the  estates  of  Prince  Esterhazy,  was  devoted  to 
music.  Liszt  was  a  somewhat  delicate  child  of  acute  sensi- 
bilities, especially  in  the  direction  of  music.  At  the  age  of 
six  he  received  piano  lessons  from  his  father.  The  intensity 
of  his  interest  in  music  and  his  phenomenal  progress  soon 
showed  the  uncommon  extent  of  his  gifts.  At  the  age  of 
nine,  he  gave  his  first  concert  before  an  audience  composed 
largely  of  Hungarian  nobility.  His  performance  was  so 
extraordinary  that  some  of  those  present  agreed  to  give 
Liszt  a  pension  for  six  years  to  insure  his  proper  education. 
Accordingly,  father  and  son  went  to  Vienna,  where  the  boy 
studied  the  piano  with  Carl  Czerny  and  composition  with 
Salieri.  Czerny  put  Liszt  through  so  thorough  a  course  of 
discipline  that  at  eleven  years  of  age  Liszt  was  known  for 

(425) 


426  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

his  playing  from  scores,  and  reading  the  most  difficult  com- 
positions at  sight.  In  1823,  he  gave  two  successful  con- 
certs ;  Beethoven  was  present  at  the  second,  and  publicly 
kissed  the  boy  in  token  of  his  approval.  Liszt's  father  now 
took  him  to  Paris  to  study  at  the  Conservatory,  but  the 
director,  Cherubini,  refused  to  allow  him  to  enter  because 
he  was  a  foreigner.  Liszt  studied  composition,  however, 
with  Paer  and  afterwards  with  Reicha.  In  the  meantime, 
letters  of  introduction  from  Liszt's  Hungarian  patrons  soon 
sufficed  to  make  him  known  throughout  the  most  aristocratic 
circles,  where  he  created  an  absolute  furore.  A  public  con- 
cert produced  the  same  results  on  a  larger  scale.  Later, 
Liszt  made  two  visits  to  England ;  he  was  received  at  the 
Court  of  George  IV,  played  in  private,  and  gave  concerts. 
On  returning  to  Paris,  he  completed  an  opera,  which  was 
performed  in  Paris.  This  opera  and  other  compositions  of 
this  period  have  entirely  disappeared.  Tours  through 
France  and  a  third  visit  to  England  followed.  In  1827, 
Liszt's  father  died,  and  his  mother  came  to  Paris  to  live ; 
he  supported  her  by  giving  lessons,  and  was  soon  in  great 
demand  as  a  teacher.  An  unfortunate  love-affair  caused 
him  to  consider  entering  the  church.  He  lost  interest  in 
music,  fell  ill,  and  was  supposed  to  be  dead.  Liszt  gradually 
recovered,  however.  He  now  underwent  a  remarkable  series 
of  formative  influences ;  he  read  widely,  formed  the  acquaint- 
ance of  many  celebrated  personages,  including  Chateau- 
briand, Lama:rtine,  Victor  Hugo  and  George  Sand,  became 
interested  in  the  principles  of  St.  Simonians,  a  somewhat 
socialistic  sect,  dallied  with  free-thinking  and  revolutionary 
tendencies,  formed  a  friendship  with  the  Abbe  Lamennais, 
and  became  intimate  with  Berlioz  and  Chopin. 

Period  of  Preparation. — Of  far  deeper  result  was  the  ap- 
pearance of  Paganini  in  Paris  during  183 1.  Liszt  bent  all 
his  energies  towards  devising  a  transcendent  piano  technic 
to  reproduce  Paganini's  caprices  on  the  piano.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  he  laid  the  foundations  of  his  gigantic  achieve- 
ments in  piano  technic,  not  merely  in  the  interest  of  virtu- 
osity, but  for  extending  the  limits  of  expression.     He  was 


Franz  Liszt. 


428  THE   HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

also  much  affected  by  Chopin's  poetic  individuality.  In 
1834,  Liszt  entered  into  an  intimacy  with  the  Comtesse 
d'Agoult,  which  lasted  for  several  years.  Three  children 
were  born  of  this  union,  of  whom  two  survived.  One 
daughter  married  M.  OUivier,  a  French  statesman,  the  other 
became  successively  Mme.  von  Biilow  and  Mme.  Wagner. 
During  this  period  Liszt  composed  much  for  piano,  made 
many  transcriptions,  and  began  his  literary  activity  on  mu- 
sical subjects.  He  gave  concerts,  chiefly  for  charity.  In 
1837,  he  made  a  trip  to  Paris  to  contest  the  supremacy  of 
the  piano  with  Thalberg.  Among  his  compositions  of  this 
period  may  be  mentioned  the  etudes,  the  Rossini  transcrip- 
tions, many  arrangements  of  Schubert's  songs,  the  piano 
scores  of  several  Beethoven  symphonies,  besides  opera-fan- 
tasies, original  pieces  for  piano,  etc. 

Professional  Activity. — In  1838,  Liszt  created  an  extra- 
ordinary sensation  by  his  concerts  in  Vienna,  and  from  1839 
to  1847  lived  the  life  of  a  traveling  virtuoso,  giving  an  un- 
paralleled series  of  recitals  throughout  the  length  and 
breadth  of  Europe,  which  were  a  series  of  triumphs  such  as 
no  artist  had  ever  before  experienced.  In  1832,  he  was 
made  court  music-director  at  Weimar,  his  duties  only  re- 
quiring his  presence  for  three  months  in  the  year.  In  1847, 
Liszt  met  the  Princess  von  Sayn-Wittgenstein,  who  exer- 
cised a  remarkable  influence  over  him.  She  persuaded  him 
to  give  up  his  career  as  a  virtuoso,  and  turn  to  composition. 
From  1848  to  1861  Liszt  passed  the  most  significant  period 
of  his  life  at  Weimar,  From  his  position  as  conductor  he 
was  of  inestimable  service  to  the  cause  of  romantic  music 
through  his  performance  of  operas  and  orchestral  works 
by  Wagner,  Berlioz,  Schumann,  Raff,  Cornelius  and  others. 
He  was  equally  active  with  his  pen  in  deference  to  the  new 
artistic  principles.  To  this  epoch  belong  Liszt's  most  im- 
portant orchestral  works,  the  concertos  and  other  composi- 
tions for  piano  and  orchestra,  many  transcriptions  and  edi- 
tions of  the  classics. 

Later  Life. — In  1859,  opposition  to  Liszt's  progressive- 
ness  became  so  pronounced  that  he  resigned.     He  did  not 


LISZT  S   PERSONALITY.  429 

leave  Weimar,  however,  until  1861.  The  rest  of  his  life 
was  somewhat  irregularly  divided  between  Rome,  Weimar 
and  Budapest.  During  the  first  few  years  at  Rome  he  com- 
posed chiefly  church  music  and  oratorios;  in  1865,  he  took 
minor  orders  in  the  Church  of  Rome.  From  1869  on,  per- 
suaded by  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Saxe- Weimar,  he  passed 
portions  of  every  year  at  Weimar  in  a  beautiful  house  espe- 
cially furnished  for  him  by  the  Duke.  Pupils  flocked  to 
him,  he  held  a  sort  of  musical  court,  and  was  treated  with  the 
respect  due  to  royalty.  His  later  years  were  full  of  activity, 
and  generous  sympathy  to  all  that  was  worthy,  and  he  was 
the  constant  object  of  homage  and  affection.  In  1886,  Liszt 
became  overtaxed  by  a  series  of  trips  to  hear  his  own  works 
performed,  including  a  reception  in  his  honor  at  London. 
He  also  made  exceptional  effort  to  attend  a  performance  of 
"Tristan  and  Isolde"  at  Bayreuth.  A  cold  was  speedily  fol- 
lowed by  pneumonia,  from  which  he  died  on  July  31,  1886. 
Liszt's  Personality  and  Character. — Liszt's  character  was 
remarkable  for  its  conspicuous  virtues  and  almost  equally 
prominent  faults.  His  was  a  large,  noble  nature,  with  deep 
humanitarian  traits.  His  life  was  one  long  service  to  his 
art,  accompanied  in  his  later  years  by  devotion  to  the 
church.  Though  not  highly  educated,  except  in  experience 
of  men  and  the  world,  he  had  an  extremely  keen  mind, 
omnivorous  in  its  tastes,  and  his  interests  were  wide  and 
penetrating.  Perhaps  his  salient  characteristics  were  gen- 
erosity and  unselfishness.  Often  during  his  career  as  a 
virtuoso  he  gave  freely  of  the  proceeds  of  his  concerts  to 
charity.  After  the  close  of  his  concert-tours  he  taught  for 
years  without  remuneration.  His  help  to  younger  artists 
was  incalculable  in  its  extent.  As  conductor  at  Weimar  his 
motto  was  to  help  living  composers  first,  and  by  his  energy 
he  did  valiant  work  in  helping  Wagner's  cause.  Largely 
endowed  with  wit,  a  fund  of  irony  and  charm  of  manner, 
men  and  women  alike  almost  literally  fell  at  his  feet,  and  it 
is  all  the  more  admirable  that  in  spite  of  the  homage  so 
unsparingly  lavished  upon  him,  he  did  not  swerve  from  his 
artistic  purposes.     The  strain  of  mysticism  so  marked  in 


430  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

his  youth,  became  later  so  pronounced  that  he  felt  com- 
pelled to  give  it  expression  by  entering  the  church. 

Liszt  as  a  Pianist. — Liszt  was  the  most  phenomenal  pianist 
in  the  history  of  music.  Other  pianists  have  surpassed  him 
in  single  qualities,  but  no  one  has  united  in  so  stupendous 
fashion  as  much  as  he.  Beginning  with  a  strictly  classical 
education,  Liszt  evolved  a  new  technic  which  completely 
summed  up  the  difficulties  of  piano  playing.  In  velocity, 
wide  stretches,  double-notes,  octaves,  and  a  whole  system  in 
itself  of  interlocking  passages,  he  all  but  attained  the  im- 
possible. He  carried  independence  of  fingers,  especially  in 
fugue  playing,  to  a  pitch  hitherto  unequalled.  His  per- 
formance of  brilliant  music  represented  the  last  word  in 
bravura ;  in  the  classics  his  interpretation  was,  as  Wagner 
says :  "not  reproduction,  but  production,"  so  vivid  and 
glowing  was  it.  His  so-called  "orchestral  style"  in  its  bold 
color  and  rich  pedal  effects  was  as  distinct  from  the  piano 
playing  before  him  as  the  modern  orchestra  was  from  that 
of  Mozart  and  Haydn.  As  he  assimilated  everything  in  the 
field  of  piano  playing  before  him,  so  has  everything  since 
him  been  forced  to  take  his  method  into  account. 

Liszt's  Compositions.  —  Among  Liszt's  chief  compositions 
are  the  "Faust"  and  "Dante"  symphonies,  with  choral  epi- 
logues ;  twelve  symphonic  poems,  a  form  which  'he  in- 
vented, and  which  is  epoch-making  in  the  development  of 
music;  many  shorter  orchestral  works;  two  concertos,  the 
Hungarian  fantasy,  the  "Dance  of  Death"  for  piano  and 
orchestra,  besides  several  compositions  for  the  same  com- 
bination on  themes  of  other  composers;  the  oratorios  "St. 
Elizabeth"  and  "Christus,"  a  Solemn  Mass,  the  Hungarian 
Coronation  Mass,  several  other  masses,  twelve  sacred  hymns 
for  chorus,  five  psalms,  and  many  other  pieces  of  church 
music,  choruses  for  men's  voices,  several  compositions  for 
solos,  chorus  and  orchestra  for  various  festival  occasions; 
fifty-five  songs  for  voice  with  piano  accompaniment;  three 
collections  containing  twenty-five  pieces  for  piano,  entitled 
"Years  of  Pilgrimage,"  a  collection  of  the  piano  pieces 
named  "Poetic  and  Religious  Harmonies,"  twelve  "Etudes 


LISZT   AS    AN    ARRANGER.  43 1 

of  Transcendent  Technic,"  three  concert  studies,  a  sonata. 
two  ballades,  two  "Legends,"  a  concert  solo,  afterwards  ar- 
ranged as  a  "Pathetic"  concerto,  a  V'alse  Impromptu,  two 
polonaises,  six  Consolations,  a  Spanish  Rhapsody,  and  nine- 
teen Hungarian  Rhapsodies  are  the  best  known  of  the  piano 
music.  There  are  five  ballades  for  declamation  with  piano 
accompaniment.  For  organ,  there  is  a  fantasy  and  fugue 
on  a  choral  from  Meyerbeer's  "Prophet,"  a  fugue  on  15.  .\. 
C.  H.,  and  variations  on  a  theme  from  a  Hach  cantata. 

Liszt's  Arrangements. — Of  almost  equal  importance  with 
Liszt's  original  compositions  are  his  matchless  transcriptions. 
Instead  of  a  trivial  and  literal  process  of  transcribing,  he 
penetrated  the  intimate  spirit  of  the  piece,  and  translated  it 
into  his  own  piano  idiom,  often  adding  considerably  but 
always  with  supreme  artistic  efifect.  What  is  lost  in  fidelity 
of  transfer  is  more  than  gained  in  added  charm,  new  har- 
monic significance  and  a  subtle  enhancing  of  individuality. 
Liszt  started  the  evolution  of  his  epoch-making  technic 
while  experimenting  with  his  arrangement  of  Paganini's 
caprices,  and  of  Berlioz'  "Fantastic  Symphony."  He  made 
easy  arrangements  from  operas  of  Rossini,  Alercadante  and 
Donizetti.  Then  he  turned  to  setting  Schubert's  matchless 
songs  for  the  piano,  arranging  in  all  fifty-seven  ;  he  con- 
tinued by  making  piano  scores  of  Beethoven's  symphonies, 
of  Rossini's  overture  to  "William  Tell,"  and  to  Weber's 
overtures  "Jubilee,"  "Freischiitz"  and  "Oberon."  He  also 
made  many  transcriptions  from  Wagner's  operas,  including 
"The  Flying  Dutchman,"  "Tannhauser,"  "Lohengrin,"  "Di 
Meistersinger,"  "Tristan  and  Isolde"  and  "Parsifal,"  be- 
sides a  fantasy  on  themes  from  "Rienzi,"  and  an  arrange- 
ment of  the  "Walhalla"  motive  from  "The  Ring  of  the 
Nibelungs."  Liszt's  arrangements  of  six  preludes  and 
fugues  as  well  as  the  fantasy  and  fugue  in  G  minor  by 
Bach  are  not  only  remarkable  for  the  extent  to  which  they 
reproduce  organ-efifect,  but  as  pioneers  in  the  transfer  of 
organ  pieces  to  the  piano,  in  which  Liszt  has  been  followed 
by  Tausig,  d'Albert  and  Busoni.  In  addition  he  tran- 
scribed fourteen  songs  by  Schumann,  thirteen  by   Franz, 


432  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

eight  by  Mendelssohn,  seven  by  Beethoven,  six  by  Chopin 
and  two  by  Weber,  besides  an  arrangement  from  Mendels- 
sohn's music  to  "A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  and  "piano 
scores"  of  the  septets  by  Beethoven  and  Hummel.  Liszt  ar- 
ranged Weber's  "Polacca  Brillante,"  Op.  'J2,  and  Schubert's 
Fantasy,  Op.  15,  for  piano  and  orchestra.  There  are  also 
many  transcriptions  of  pieces  by  Palestrina,  Di  Lasso,  Arca- 
delt,  Mozart,  Glinka,  Dargomischky,  Saint-Saens,  Verdi, 
Raff,  Gounod,  Rubinstein,  Tchaikovsky,  Cesar  Cui  and 
others.  Liszt  scored  the  accompaniment  of  several  Schu- 
bert songs  for  orchestra,  he  also  orchestrated  several  of  the 
Schubert  four-hand  marches.  He  also  arranged  many  of 
his  own  songs,  orchestral  and  choral  works  for  piano  and 
for  organ.  His  transcriptions  as  a  whole  are  monumental 
not  only  on  account  of  their  artistic  merit,  but  because  they 
served  an  educational  purpose  in  spreading  the  works  of 
little  known  composers.  In  this  way  Liszt  cultivated  the 
public  taste  for  Schubert's  songs,  and  brought  Wagner 
within  the  reach  of  the  average  concert-goer. 

Liszt  a  Writer. — As  a  critic,  Liszt  must  stand  as  a  pioneer 
although  in  a  different  direction  from  Schumann.  Liszt's 
early  essay  on  the  position  of  the  artist  is  extremely  signi- 
ficant ;  his  criticisms  during  the  Weimar  period,  especially 
his  analyses  of  Wagner's  operas  were  of  great  value;  his 
"Life  of  Chopin,"  while  untrustworthy  in  detail  and  some- 
what overdrawn,  is  nevertheless  graphic ;  "The  Gipsies  and 
Their  Music"  is  picturesque  if  not  entirely  accurate.  Liszt's 
letters  contain  glimpses  of  his  high  qualities  as  well  as  vital 
presentations  of  his  musical  views.  The  correspondence 
between  Wagner  and  Liszi  gives  conclusive  evidence  of  the 
latter's  unselfishness  in  Wagner's  behalf. 

Liszt's  Position  and  Influence  as  a  Composer. — Liszt's  rank 
as  a  composer  was  undoubtedly  overshadowed  by  his  fame 
as  a  pianist  and  teacher,  and  by  his  facility  as  an  arranger. 
For  many  years  neither  critics  nor  public  would  acknowl- 
edge his  creative  gifts.  Whatever  our  opinion  of  the  sym- 
phonies, the  symphonic  poems  and  the  concertos,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  Liszt  rendered  an  inestimable  service  to  the 


LISZT  S   INFLUENCE.  433 

development  of  music  in  breaking  away  from  the  sonata 
form,  and  in  demonstrating  that  form  and  substance  can 
go  hand-in-hand  without  detriment  to  organic  unity  and 
coherence.  His  forms  are  novel,  his  orchestration  highly 
effective  in  spite  of  the  achievements  of  Berlioz  and  Wagner 
in  this  direction.  Liszt's  church  music  and  his  oratorios 
are  worthy  efforts  towards  a  reform  of  ecclesiastic  music. 
His  songs  are  truly  spontaneous  lyrics,  which  are  not  ap- 
preciated at  their  true  value.  In  spite  of  Liszt's  unques- 
tioned attainments  as  a  composer,  there  is  a  suggestion  of 
skilful  assimilation  in  his  individuality  rather  than  of  unique 
and  unquestioned  personality.  Nevertheless  his  influence 
has  been  vast.  In  his  old  age  he  encouraged  Borodin  and 
Glazounoff,  he  conducted  works  by  Rimsky-Korsakoff,  he 
made  his  pupils  play  Balakireff's  "Islamey."  In  turn,  the 
"new-Russian"  school  owes  much  to  him.  Tchaikovsky 
could  hardly  have  written  his  symphonic  poems  without 
Liszt's  pioneer  work  to  show  the  way.  Saint-Saens  admits 
a  similar  influence.  In  fact,  the  entire  development  of  the 
symphonic  poem  is  directly  due  to  Liszt;  it  is  so  consider- 
able in  extent  that  the  details  cannot  be  examined  here,  but 
while  both  Wagner  and  Berlioz  contributed  much  to  the 
growth  of  orchestral  style  and  individuality  of  expression, 
the  orginality  of  the  symphonic  poem  form  belongs  entirely 
to  Liszt.  Thus  Liszt's  share  in  the  evolution  of  ultra- 
modern orchestral  music,  as  well  as  in  the  development  of 
piano  playing,  is  very  important,  and  the  greatest  living 
composer,  Richard  Strauss,  although  also  influenced  by 
both  Berlioz  and  Wagner,  frankly  avows  himself  to  be  a 
disciple  of  Liszt. 

References. 

Grove's  and  Riemann's  Dictionaries. — Article  on  Liszt. 

Newman. — A  Study  of  Liszt.  (Century  Library  of 
Music.) 

Ramann. — Franz  Liszt  as  Artist  and  Man. 

Saint-Saens. — Franz  Liszt.  (Century  Magazine,  Feb., 
1803.) 


434  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

QlTKSTIONS    AXt)    SUC.C.KSTUJXS. 

What  was  the  nature  and  extent  of  Liszt's  early  musical 
education  ? 

What  was  the  effect  of  his  wide  travels  and  meeting-  with 
notable  persons  on  his  character? 

What  set  him  to  perfecting  his  technic  ? 

Name  the  most  important  events  in  his  career. 

What  educational  work  was  the  feature  of  his  later  years  ? 

Sketch  Liszt's  personality  and  character. 

Give  an  account  of  Liszt's  contribution  to  piano  technic. 

In  what  styles  and  forms  of  composition  did  Liszt  write? 

What  works  did  he  transcribe  for  the  piano  ? 

What  literary  work  did  he  do  ? 

What  composers  did  he  influence? 

What  song  composer  was  brought  into  greater  prominence 
by  Liszt? 

Whose  symphonies  did  he  arrange  for  the  piano? 

What  opera  composer  did  he  assist  greatly? 

What  important  form  did  Liszt  originate? 

What  has  been  Liszt's  share  in  the  development  of  the 
"modern  school"? 

The  student  who  wishes  to  examine  Liszt's  works  for 
himself,  should  study  the  symphonies  and  symphonic  poems 
in  Liszt's  own  arrangement  for  two  pianos.  They  require, 
however,  a  technic  beyond  the  average  player.  The  same 
difiiculty  applies  to  his  piano  music,  but  the  following  may 
serve  as  guides  to  Liszt's  style :  The  "Lake  of  Wallenstadt," 
and  "Eclogue,"  Nos.  2  and  7,  in  the  Swiss  "Years  of  Pil- 
grimage" ;  the  "Gondoliera"  and  "Tarentelle"  from  "Venice 
and  Naples,"  the  "Valse  Impromptu,"  "Ave  Maria,"  "Wal- 
desrauschen"  and  "Gnomenreigen,"  the  pieces  for  Lebert 
and  Stark's  Piano  School,  the  Concert  Studies  in  F  minor 
and  D-flat,  the  Love  Dreams,  the  Consolations,  Nos,  i,  2 
and  4;  tiie  Legends,  the  "Benediction  of  God  in  the  Soli- 
tude" and  "Love  Song"  from  "Poetic  and  Religious  Har- 
monies," and  the  Fantasy  on  "Rigoletto."  For  the  more 
advanced  player  may  be  suggested  the  Etudes,  Nos.  3,  4,  5, 


WORKS    FOR    STUDY.  435 

7,  9,  II  and  12;  the  Mephisto  Waltz,  the  Second  Ballad, 
"Au  Bord  d'une  Source"  from  the  Swiss  "Years  of  Pil- 
grimage," the  Second  Polonaise,  the  "Funerailles"  from 
"Poetic  and  Religious  Harmonies,"  the  Sonata^  the  Hun- 
garian Rhapsodies,  Nos.  2,  4,  6,  10,  11,  12,  15,  and  the 
Spanish  Rhapsody ;  the  two  concertos  in  E-flat  and  A,  tlie 
Hungarian  Fantasy,  and  the  concert  piece  "The  Dance  of 
Death,"  the  Fantasy  on  "Don  Juan."  Among  the  tran- 
scriptions, the  Schubert  songs,  "Hark !  Hark !  the  Lark," 
"Du  hist  die  Ruh,"  "Friihlingsglaube,"  "The  Wanderer," 
"By  the  Sea,"  "Meeresstille,"  "Barcarolle,"  "Trockne  l>lu- 
men,"  "Wohin,"  "Ungeduld,"  "Erl-King" ;  the  Mendelssohn 
song,  "On  Wings  of  Song" ;  the  Schumann  songs,  "Dedi- 
cation," "To  the  Sunshine,"  and  "Spring  Night"  ;  the  Weber 
"Slumber  Song"  may  be  suggested.  Of  the  Wagner  ar- 
rangements, "The  Evening  Star,"  from  Tannhauser,"  the 
"Spinning  Song,"  from  "The  Flying  Dutchman,"  and 
"Isolde's  Love  Death,"  are  the  most  characteristic.  The 
Paganini  Studies,  Nos.  2,  3  and  5 ;  the  waltz  from  Gounod's 
"Faust,"  the  Tarentelle  after  Auber,  and  the  Overture  to 
''Tannhauser"  are  among  the  best.  Of  the  songs,  "Mig- 
non's  Lied"  and  "Ueber  alien  Gipfeln,"  "Comment  disaient- 
i!s,"  "Angiolin  dal  biondo  crin,"  "Es  muss  ein  wunderbares 
sein,"  "Die  drei  Zigeuner,"  and  "Der  du  von  dem  Himmel 
bist"  and  "Die  Lorelei"  are  the  best. 


LESSON  XLVII. 

Pianists  and  Teachers  Since  Liszt.     I. 

Introduction. — The  achievements  of  Liszt  in  developing 
piano  technic,  in  enlarging  the  scope  of  piano  playing 
through  his  masterly  transcriptions,  in  variety  and  intensity 
of  interpretation,  have  brought  results  that  are  enormous 
in  extent  and  far-reaching  in  their  developments  to  the  gen- 
erations that  have  succeeded  him.  When  Liszt  was  in  the 
height  of  his  career  as  a  virtuoso,  few  could  master  the 
difficulties  which  his  epoch-making  works  presented.  Grad- 
ually the  secrets  of  his  technic  were  revealed  to  the  ambitious 
few;  now  they  are  almost  common  property.  The  great 
concert  pianists  of  today  possess  a  technic  that  would  have 
been  unique  forty  years  age.  The  repertory  which  all 
pianists  worthy  the  name  play  from  memory  (a  practice 
which  Liszt  initiated)  is  exceedingly  extensive,  while  the 
endurance  which  they  display  and  the  facility  with  which 
they  reproduce  the  masterpieces  of  piano  literature  is 
stupendous. 

Pupils  of  Liszt. 

Liszt  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest  revealer  of  the  secrets 
of  piano  playing  in  the  19th  century,  and  his  pupils  and 
those  who  have  assimilated  his  teachings  occupy  a  large 
part  of  the  pianistic  activity  of  today.  Among  the  first 
of  Liszt's  pupils  to  become  famous  were  Tausig  and  von 
Billow.  Carl  Tausig,  born  in  1841,  died  in  1871,  was  trained 
by  his  father,  and  later  studied  with  Liszt,  under  whose 
guidance  he  achieved  a  phenomenal  accuracy  of  technic,  and 
a  commanding  power  of  interpretation.  His  short  life  was 
spent  mainly  in  concert  tours.  He  established  a  school  of 
(436) 


PUPILS  OF  LISZT.  437 

music  in  Berlin  for  advanced  piano  playing.  His  untimely 
death  cut  short  a  brilliant  career.  His  edition  of  dementi's 
Gradus  and  a  collection  of  finger  exercises  are  invaluable 
to  teachers  and  to  students.  Hans  von  Buelow,  born  in  1830, 
died  1894,  was  intended  for  the  law,  although  he  studied 
the  piano  as  a  boy  under  Friedrich  Wieck.  In  1850,  he  be- 
came so  absorbed  in  Wagner's  music  that  he  abandoned  all 
idea  of  the  law.  He  studied  the  piano  with  Liszt  at  Weimar, 
and  soon  acquired  a  remarkable  technic.  He  was  never  a 
pianist  of  the  virtuoso  type ;  his  strength  lay  in  striving 
to  reproduce  the  intention  of  the  composer  as  faithfully  as 
possible.  His  interpretations  of  Beethoven  were  especially 
famous,  although  he  was  progressive  in  his  tastes.  In  1876, 
he  made  a  tour  in  the  United  States,  where  he  did  much  to 
advance  the  cause  of  new  music.  As  early  as  1865  he  con- 
ducted performances  of  Wagner's  operas,  and  later  his  asso- 
ciation with  orchestras  at  Meiningen  and  of  the  Berlin 
Philharmonic  Society  placed  his  reputation  as  a  conductor 
in  the  front  rank.  He  was  extremely  energetic  in  Wagner's 
behalf  and  did  much  to  bring  his  works  to  a  public  hearing. 
His  editions  of  Cramer's  studies  and  Beethoven's  sonatas 
are  of  great  value. 

Among  Liszt's  later  pupils,  one  of  the  foremost  is  Eugen 
D'Albert,  born  in  1864.  He  received  his  early  training  in 
England,  but  in  1881,  as  a  prize  scholar,  he  studied  with 
Liszt  at  Weimar.  After  brilliant  concert  tours  through 
Europe,  he  came  to  America,  in  1889,  with  Sarasate,  where 
his  ability  was  at  once  recognized.  He  has  since  largely  re- 
nounced the  career  of  virtuoso  for  that  of  composer,  al- 
though he  made  a  visit  to  the  United  States  in  1905,  giving 
a  number  of  recitals. 

Moritz  Rosenthal,  possibly  the  most  fully  equipped  vir- 
tuoso technically  now  before  the  public,  was  born  in  1862. 
At  first  a  pupil  of  Mikuli,  a  disciple  of  Chopin,  and  later  of 
Joseffy,  he  came  ultimately  to  Liszt,  with  whom  he  studied 
for  ten  years.  After  numerous  European  tours  he  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1888,  where  he  dazzled  his  audiences 
,  by  his  unusual  command  of  technic.     He  reappeared  in 


438  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

America  in  1896-97,  and  has  since  made  triumphal  progress 
through  Europe.  As  an  interpreter  he  is  less  successful  than 
as  a  virtuoso.  He  is  court  pianist  of  Roumania.  He  has 
published  a  collection  of  technical  exercises  with  Ludwig 
Schytte. 

Bernhard  Stavenhagen,  born  in  1862,  is  another  noted 
Liszt  pupil.  He  acted  as  Liszt's  secretary  during  his  later 
years,  and  at  the  same  time  received  lessons.  In  1890,  he 
became  court  pianist  at  Weimar.  In  1894-95,  he  visited 
America.  Since  then  he  has  acted  as  conductor  at  Dresden 
and  Munich. 

Emil  Sauer,  another  phenomenal  pupil  of  Liszt,  was  born 
in  1862.  At  first  a  pupil  of  Nicholas  Rubinstein,  he  studied 
with  Liszt  from  1884  until  the  latter's  death.  He  possesses 
an  extraordinary  technic,  and  is  almost  unrivalled  for  the 
extreme  brilliancy  of  his  eflfects.  He  has  received  many 
decorations  from  various  courts  of  Europe.  In  1897-98,  he 
visited  the  United  States,  where  he  made  a  sensation.  Since 
1901,  he  has  been  at  the  head  of  the  piano  department  in 
the  Vienna  Conservatory,  giving  his  attention  to  pupils  in 
the  artist  department. 

Among  other  talented  pupils  of  Liszt  may  be  mentioned 
Alfred  Reisenauer,  Arthur  Friedheim  and  Richard  Bur- 
meister,  all  of  whom  have  been  heard  in  this  country.  The 
foregoing  account  does  not  begin  to  enumerate  all,  merely 
the  celebrated  pupils  of  Liszt.  Others  will  be  referred  to 
in  the  course  of  this  and  the  next  lesson. 

Belgian  Pianists. — In  piano  playing,  the  Brussels  Conser- 
vatory is  far  below  the  level  of  the  Paris  Conservatory,  al- 
though the  director  Gevaert  has  a  world-wide  reputation 
for  his  text-book  on  orchestration,  and  the  symphony  con- 
certs at  the  conservatory,  led  by  him,  have  a  high  place  in 
orchestral  standards.  Nevertheless,  in  the  piano  department 
two  names  deserve  mention:  Brassin  and  Dupont.  Lonis 
Brassin  (1840-1884)  studied  at  the  Leipzig  Conservatory 
under  Moscheles,  where  he  remained  five  years,  winning 
numerous  prizes.  In  1866,  he  became  first  piano  teacher 
at  the  Stern  Conservatory  in  Berlin.     Later  he  joined  the, 


BRAHMS.  439 

Brussels  Conservatory,  as  professor  of  piano  playing,  where 
he  taught  from  1869-1878.  In  1879,  he  accepted  a  position 
at  the  St.  Petersburg  Conservatory,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death,  in  1884.  Brassin  was  not  only  known  as 
a  fine  pianist  and  teacher,  but  also  by  his  transcri[)tions  from 
"The  Ring  of  the  Nibelungs."  He  also  composed  piano 
pieces  and  even  two  operettas.  Auguste  Dupont  ( 1828- 
1890)  studied  at  the  Liege  Conservatory.  After  several 
years  of  wandering  life,  he  became  professor  of  piano  at 
the  Brussels  Conservatory,  a  position  which  he  held  until 
his  death,  in  1890.  He  is  known  also  as  a  composer  of 
graceful  piano  pieces,  a  concerto  and  a  concert-piece,  in  all 
of  which  the  influence  of  Schumann  is  seen. 

Johannes  Brahms  (1833-1897),  famed  both  as  composer 
and  pianist,  was  the  son  of  an  orchestral  musician  in  Ham- 
burg, whose  circumstances  were  of  the  humblest.  As  a  child 
he  developed  remarkable  ability  as  a  pianist,  but  his  first 
lessons  in  composition  awakened  an  enthusiasm  that  ab- 
sorbed his  entire  being.  He  was  comparatively  unknown 
when  at  the  age  of  twenty  Schumann  brought  him  into 
public  notice  by  hailing  him  as  the  successor  of  Beethoven. 

Unlike  most  composers,  Brahms  was  mature  from  the 
very  beginning.  His  early  works  bear  no  trace  of  the  un- 
certainty ^nd  imitation  generally  associated  with  youth,  and 
it  was  this  remarkable  maturity  that  interested  Schumann 
and  gave  point  to  his  predictions  for  the  future  of  the 
young  musician.  Unaffected  by  the  pomp  and  glow  of  the 
ultra-romantic  tendency  initiated  by  Berlioz  and  culmina- 
ting at  present  in  the  works  of  Richard  Strauss,  he  remained 
true  to  the  great  classical  school  which  rests  on  Bach  and 
Palestrina.  Unlike  the  modern  impressionistic  school,  his 
art  is  based  on  essentially  musical  ideas  and  their  contra- 
puntal treatment;  it  is  architectural  rather  than  pictorial. 
In  such  a  scheme,  color  is  subordinate  to  thematic  interest, 
hence  his  instrumentation  often  appears  heavy  and  austere 
to  those  who  look  for  the  brilliancy  and  tone  painting  of 
Liszt  or  Wagner,  His  music  in  general  is  founded  on  Bach 
and  Beethoven. 


440  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

His  works  for  the  piano  are  large  and  orchestral  in  style, 
and  demand  a  technic  of  their  own,  which  was  at  first  con- 
sidered unsuited  to  the  nature  of  the  instrument.  Von 
Billow  remarks  that  while  in  Bach  we  hear  the  organ,  in 
Beethoven  the  orchestra,  in  Brahms  we  hear  both  organ 
and  orchestra.  Notwithstanding  their  dignity  and  nobility 
of   conception,   they   won   their   way   but   slowly   to    favor. 


Johannes  Bbahms. 

Their  newness  of  style  and  difficulty  of  execution  estranged 
both  public  and  musicians.  Though  Brahms'  four  sym- 
phonies have  become  reasonably  familiar,  his  piano  works 
have  not  even  yet  achieved  widespread  popularity.  They 
comprise  two  concertos,  three  sonatas,  many  variations,  and 
a  host  of  smaller  pieces — ballades,  scherzos,  intermezzos, 
capriccios,  etc.  Brahms  never  wrote  for  the  stage  but  was 
active  in  all   other  departments   of  music.     His   greatest 


RUSSIAN    PIANISTS.  44I 

choral  work  is  the  "German  Requiem,"  composed  in  mem- 
ory of  his  mother,  to  texts  selected  by  himself  from  the 
Scriptures  and  sung  in  German,  instead  of  in  Latin,  hence 
its  name.  He  drew  no  little  inspiration  from  the  Folk-song, 
which  he  uses  not  only  in  the  form  of  harmonies  and  rhythms 
distinctly  based  on  Folk  melodies,  but  in  literal  quotations 
serving  as  themes  in  several  of  his  instrumental  composi- 
tions. This  contact  with  the  people  through  their  songs 
gives  particular  freshness  and  vigor  to  much  of  Brahms' 
music,  as  well  as  a  sturdy  Teutonic  character  that  stamps 
it  as  distinctively  national  in  spirit. 

It  is  perhaps  too  soon  to  deliver  an  authoritative  judg- 
ment as  to  the  ultimate  rank  that  Brahms  will  take  among 
the  great  composers  of  the  past.  There  is  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, that  he  is  one  of  the  commanding  figures  of  the  last 
century  and  that  he  has  enriched  the  world  with  a  mass  of 
noble  music,  all  of  which  deserves  to  be  known  for  its 
elevation  and  consummate  mastery  of  detail 

Russian  Pianists. 
Of  a  somewhat  independent  development  from  Liszt,  al- 
though much  influenced  by  his  personality  and  his  method, 
was  Anton  Rubinstein,  born  in  1829,  died  in  1894.  He 
studied  the  piano  at  Moscow  with  Villoing,  who  gave  him 
so  thorough  a  training  that  he  had  no  other  teacher.  From 
1840,  after  concerts  in  Paris,  he  had  universal  recognition 
as  a  pianist.  Further  European  tours  increased  his  fame. 
He  lived  successively  in  Berlin  and  Vienna,  and  later  re- 
turned to  St.  Petersburg.  In  1872-73,  he  made  a  remark- 
able tour  through  America,  arousing  an  enthusiasm  only 
equalled  in  later  years  by  Paderewski.  Although  he  passed 
most  of  his  life  in  constant  activity  as  a  composer,  he 
directed  the  Russian  Symphony  Concerts  in  St.  Petersburg. 
As  early  as  1862  he  founded  the  St.  Petersburg  Conserva- 
tory, which  has  had  a  prominent  place  in  Russian  music. 
He  was  a  complete  master  of  the  piano,  his  technic  was 
gigantic,  although  his  vitality  of  interpretation  was  so  in- 
tense that  details  paled  before  it.     His  historical  recitals 


442  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

covering  the  entire  literature  of  the  piano  were  his  most 
conspicuous  achievements  as  a  pianist.  He  may  be  re- 
garded as  second  only  to  Liszt,  and  in  some  respects  he  even 
surpassed  him.  He  was  disappointed  at  not  being  accorded 
high  rank  as  a  composer,  as  well  as  a  pianist. 

His  brother,  Nicholas  Rubinstein,  born  in  1835,  died  in 
1881,  although  not  so  distinguished  a  pianist,  and  a  com- 
poser of  slight  account,  exerted  almost  as  strong  an  influence 
on  Russian  music.  A  pupil  of  Kullak,  he  founded  the 
Russian  Musical  Society  at  Moscow,  in  1859,  and  in  1864 
the  Moscow  Conservatory,  which  has  been  exceedingly  ac- 
tive in  Russian  musical  affairs.  He  directed  the  Moscow 
Conservatory  until  his  death ;  he  was  an  intimate  adviser  of 
Tchaikovsky,  while  his  worth  as  a  teacher  may  be  guessed 
from  the  prominence  of  his  pupils,  Karl  Klindworth,  Emil 
Sauer  and  Alexander  Siloti,  possibly  the  foremost  Russian 
pianist  today. 

Mill  Balakireff,  born  in  1836,  has  been  a  considerable 
force  in  Russian  music,  besides  being  a  capable  pianist. 
After  studying  physics  and  mathematics  at  the  University 
of  Kazan,  he  turned  to  music.  In  1862,  he  founded  a  Free 
School  of  Music  in  St.  Petersburg.  Among  his  associates 
were  Cesar  Cui,  Nicholas  Rimsky-Korsakoff,  Alexander 
Borodine  and  others.  He  has  done  much  to  aid  the  Neo- 
Russian  school  of  composition.  His  piano  music  is  ef- 
fective and  highly  colored,  especially  his  fantasy  on  Geor- 
gian themes,  "Islamey." 

Alexander  Siloti,  undoubtedly  the  most  widely-known  of 
Russian  pianists,  born  at  Charcow,  1863,  was  a  pupil  in 
piano  playing  of  Nicholas  Rubinstein,  at  the.  Moscow  Con- 
servatory. From  1883- 1886,  he  studied  with  Liszt.  His 
technic  is  enormous ;  while  not  intensely  magnetic,  his  intel- 
lectual grasp  of  music  is  remarkable.  He  made  an  American 
tour  in  1898,  when  he  introduced  much  Russian  piano  music 
that  was  new.  Although  Siloti  has  taught  at  the  Moscow 
Conservatory,  he  has  lived  of  late  years  at  Leipzig  and  Paris. 

Among  other  Russian  pianists  are  Vassili  Sapellnikoff, 
born  1868,  a  pupil  of  Kessler,  Louis  Brassin,  Sophie  Menter ; 


FRENCH    PIANISTS.  443 

Vassili  Safonoff,  a  pupil  of  Leschetizky  and  Zaremba  in  St. 
Petersburg,  since  1887  director  of  the  Moscow  Conservatory, 
and  more  lately  a  conductor;  Sergei  Rachmaninoff,  born 
1873,  a  pupil  of  Siloti,  not  only  a  brilliant  pianist  but  also 
a  composer  of  originality ;  Alexander  Scriabine,  born  1872, 
a  pupil  of  Safonoff,  who  has  made  successful  European 
tours,  and  like  Rachmaninoff,  has  composed  much  for  his 
instrument. 

Two  German  pianists,  Henselt  and  Klindworth,  were  so 
associated  with  Russian  music  as  to  warrant  their  mention 
here.  Adolph  Henselt,  born  1814,  died  1889,  at  one  time  a 
pupil  of  Hummel,  was  for  the  most  part  self-taught.  He 
passed  most  of  his  life  in  St.  Petersburg,  giving  lessons  and 
playing  frequently  in  public.  He  also  had  an  official  posi- 
tion as  music  inspector.  As  a  pianist,  Henselt  was  exceed- 
ingly eminent,  and  may  be  ranked  next  to  Rubinstein  and 
von  Bulow,  although  in  later  years  nervousness  prevented 
his  playing  in  public.  His  etudes  are  distinct  additions  to 
the  technical  resources  of  the  piano,  his  arrangements  of 
Cramer  etudes  with  second  piano  accompaniment  are  praise- 
worthy. 

Karl  Klindworth,  born  1830,  was  a  pupil  of  Nicholas 
Rubinstein  and  later,  of  Liszt.  After  living  in  London,  he 
became  professor  of  piano  playing  at  the  Moscow  Conser- 
vatory, from  1868-1884.  Later  he  settled  in  Berlin,  be- 
came conductor  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  and  opened  a 
conservatory  with  von  Bulow,  which  was  merged  with  that 
of  Scharwenka  in  1893.  Klindworth's  edition  of  Chopin  is 
in  some  respects  the  best.  He  has  also  edited  Beethoven's 
sonatas,  and  he  prepared  the  piano  score  of  the  entire  "Ring 
of  the  Nibelungs." 

French  Pianists. 
In  presenting  the  famous  French  pianists,  Charles  Henri 
Valentine  Alkan,  born  1813,  died  1888,  must  not  be  for- 
gotten. A  brilliant  pianist,  he  claims  our  attention  chiefly 
on  account  of  his  etudes,  introducing  novel  and  extremely 
difficult  problems  of  technic.     Musically  his  studies  cannot 


444  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

be  compared  with  those  of  Chopin  or  Lisz*-,  but  they  merit 
attention,  particularly  in  the  modern  editions. 

Although  CamiUe  Saint-Saens  is  known  chiefly  as  a  com- 
poser, he  was,  during  his  early  years,  a  remarkable  pianist. 
His  contributions  to  piano  literature,  five  concertos,  etudes 
and  smaller  pieces,  are  all  valuable. 

A  group  of  Paris  Conservatory  professors  constitute  the 
most  distinguishing  teaching  talent  in  France  today.  Fur- 
ther than  that,  Paris  is  one  of  the  great  centres  of  piano 
playing  in  Europe.  Its  teachers  follow  their  own  traditions, 
yet  have  assimilated  from  Liszt. 

The  oldest  of  these  is  Georges  Mathias  (b.  1826),  pupil  of 
Chopin,  Kalkbrenner  and  the  Paris  Conservatory,  who  has 
been  professor  of  piano  playing  since  1862.  E.  Delaborde, 
a  pupil  of  Alkan,  Moscheles  and  Liszt,  has  taught  at  the 
Paris  Conservatory  since  1873.  One  of  the  most  success- 
ful teachers  now  living  is  Louis  Diemer,  born  1843,  ^  pupil 
of  Marmontel,  Winning  the  first  piano  prize  at  the  age  of 
thirteen,  he  succeeded  his  former  teacher  in  1888.  Diemer 
has  turned  out  many  first  prizes ;  he  has  an  impeccable 
technic;  he  has  done  much  to  foster  interest  in  the  harpsi- 
chord, the  oboe  d'amore  and  other  obsolete  instruments.  He 
has  published  valuable  collections  of  old  French  harpsichord 
music,  besides  original  works.  A  Conservatory  teacher  well- 
known  in  America  is  Kaoul  Pugno,  born  1852.  A  pupil  of 
the  Paris  Conservatory,  he  obtained  first  prizes  in  piano 
playing,  organ  and  harmony.  He  came  to  America  in 
1897-98  with  Ysaye  and  others,  and  again  in  1902.  He  has 
taught  at  the  Paris  Conservatory  since  1897.  He  has  a 
superb  technic,  and  is  versatile  as  an  interpreter.  He  has 
also  composed  much.  A  teacher  of  unusual  insight  into 
technic  is  Isidor  Philipp,  born  1863,  a  pupil  of  Mathias, 
Saint-Saens  and  others.  He  possesses  a  flawlessly  accurate 
technic,  and  has  appeared  frequently  in  public,  although 
he  devotes  the  greater  part  of  his  energy  to  teaching.  He 
has  published  many  valuable  sets  of  exercises,  collections  of 
difficult  passages,  some  transcriptions  and  original  pieces. 
He  has  been   professor  at  the   Conservatory   since    1904. 


LESSON    HELPS.  445 

Louis  Breitner,  a  pupil  of  the  Milan  Conservatory,  Anton 
Rubinstein  and  Liszt,  has  lived  for  many  years  at  Paris  as 
pianist  and  teacher.  He  also  has  visited  America.  Among  the 
younger  French  pianists  are  Leon  Delafosse,  Edouard  Risler, 
an  eclectic  pianist,  a  pupil  of  Diemer,  D'Albert  and  Staven- 
hagen. 

References  for  Lessons  XLVII  and  XLVIIL 

Fay. — Music  Study  in  Germany. 

Walker. — ^My  Musical  Memories. 

Lahee. — Pianists  of  the  Past  and  Present. 

Grove's  Dictionary. — Article  on  Pianoforte  Players. 

Finck. — Paderewski  and  His  Art. 

Leschetizky. — Autobiography. 

Mason. — Memories  of  a  Musical  Life. 

Lenz. — The  Great  Virtuosos  of  our  Time. 

Questions. 

Who  were  the  earliest  of  Liszt's  pupils? 

Name  some  later  pupils  of  Liszt. 

Who  are  the  leading  exponents  of  the  Belgian  school? 

Whose  principles  did  Brahms  follow  ? 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  his  works? 

What  was  Anton  Rubinstein's  chief  characteristic  as  a 
pianist  ? 

Whom  did  Nicholas  Rubinstein  assist  greatly? 

By  what  piano  piece  is  Balakireff  best  known  ? 

What  Russian  pianist  has  visited  America  ? 

Name  two  young  Russian  composer  pianists. 

Give  some  account  of  Henselt. 

Who  made  the  piano  score  of  Wagner's  "Ring  of  the 
Nibelungs"  ? 

Name  some  successful  teachers  of  the  piano  at  the  Paris 
Conservatory.  Which  one  has  twice  visited  America? 
Which  has  published  many  valuable  sets  of  exercises? 


LESSON  XLVIII. 

Pianists  and  Teachers  Since  Liszt.     II. 

One  of  the  greatest  living  teachers  in  authority  and 
breadth  of  influence  is  Theodor  Leschetizky,  born  in  183 1. 
A  pupil  of  Czerny,  he  began  to  teach  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
having  played  in  public  since  1842.  He  became  a  teacher 
in  the  St.  Petersburg  Conservatory,  where  he  taught  for 
many  years.  Soon  after  1880  he  settled  in  Vienna,  where 
he  has  lived  ever  since.  Since  the  success  of  his  pupil 
Paderewski,  Leschetizky  has  been  the  most  sought-after 
teacher  in  the  world.  He  has  been  obliged  to  have  assistants 
to  prepare  pupils  for  him.  Students  have  come  to  Vienna 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  A  brilliant  pianist,  he  has  written 
piano  music  and  even  an  opera,  but  his  merit  as  a  teacher 
is  due  to  the  foundation  given  him  by  Czerny,  who  acquired 
his  traditions  from  Beethoven,  to  the  keenness  of  his  ability 
to  prescribe  for  the  individual  needs  of  the  pupil  and  the 
simplicity  and  directness  of  his  "method."  His  pupils  have 
met  with  great  success,  although  he  has  not  yet  produced  a 
second  Paderewski. 

Ig^az  Paderewski,  probably  the  greatest  pianist  since 
Liszt,  although  like  him  excelled  in  some  respects  by  others, 
was  born  in  1859.  A  pupil  of  the  Warsaw  Conservatory, 
he  also  studied  at  Berlin.  He  taught  piano  at  the  Warsaw 
Conservatory  from  1878-83,  and  also  at  Strassburg.  Later 
he  went  to  Leschetizky  for  a  thorough  course  of  study. 
After  his  debut  at  Vienna,  in  1887,  he  conquered  by  degrees 
Paris  and  London.  His  first  visit  to  America  was  in  1891, 
when  he  carried  all  before  him.  Since  then  he  has  visited 
the  United  States  three  times,  he  has  traveled  over  all 
(446) 


PUPILS   OF    LESCHETIZKY.  447 

Europe,  and  has  visited  Australia  with  overwhelming'  suc- 
cess, financial  and  artistic.  His  most  noticeable  qualities  are 
a  magnetic  personality,  a  virtuoso  technic,  the  color  and 
piquant  rhythm  of  his  playing,  and  the  poetry  and  deep 
human  intensity  of  his  interpretations.  He  has  written 
several  sets  of  pieces  for  the  piano,  a  concerto,  and  a  fantasy 
with  orchestra,  and  an  opera.  His  generous  gift  of  the 
endowment  of  triennial  prizes  to  American  composers  is 
an  admirable  instance  of  his  warm-heartedness. 

Josef  Slavinski,  born  1865,  who  studied  with  Stroeble, 
Anton  Rubinstein  and  finally  Leschetizky,  is  a  pianist  of 
great  ability  who  came  to  the  United  States  in  1873,  and 
again  in  1901.  Other  Leschetizky  pupils  are  Ossip  Gabrilo- 
witsch,  born  1878,  also  a  pupil  of  Anton  Rubinstein  and  the 
St.  Petersburg  Conservatory,  who  came  to  America  in  1900 
and  1902 ;  Mark  Hambourg,  born  in  1879,  who  first  studied 
with  his  father,  and  after  a  tour  of  the  United  States  in 
1900,  has  had  brilliant  successes  in  Europe  and  England ; 
Martinus  Sieveking,  born  1867,  a  pupil  of  Rontgen  at 
Leipzig,  who  visited  America  in  1895  and  again  in  1896-97 
and  afterwards  went  to  Vienna.  There  are  many  other 
brilliant  pupils  of  Leschetizky,  but  the  foregoing  are  some 
of  the  best  known. 

Paderewski  has  not  taught,  as  a  rule,  since  his  great 
triumphs  as  a  virtuoso,  but  he  has  made  exceptions.  Sigfis- 
mond  Stojowski,  born  1870,  was  a  pupil  of  the  Paris  Con- 
servatory, where  he  won  first  prizes  in  piano  playing  and 
composition.  Later  he  studied  with  Paderewski,  and  lived 
as  pianist,  teacher  and  composer  in  Paris.  In  1905,  he 
accepted  the  position  of  head  of  the  piano  department  at 
the  Institute  of  Musical  Art,  New  York  City.  Antoinette 
Szumowska-Adamowska  was  born  in  1868.  She  studied  at 
Warsaw,  and  later,  for  several  years,  with  Paderewski.  She 
has  made  successful  appearances  in  Europe  and  America. 
Later  she  accepted  a  position  at  the  New  England  Conser- 
vatory, in  Boston,  U.  S.  A. 

Another  pianist  of  great  ability  who  has  profited  by 
Paderewski's  suggestions  is  Harold  Bauer,  born  in   1873. 


448  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

A  student  of  the  violin,  as  well  as  of  the  piano,  he  did  not 
consider  making  a  career  as  a  piano  virtuoso  until  encour- 
aged by  Paderewski.  In  1892,  he  studied  with  Paderewski, 
although  he  is  largely  self-taught,  for  his  individuality  and 
musical  style  show  slight  effects  of  Paderewski's  influence. 
Bauer's  technic  is  superb,  although  he  is  not  a  virtuoso  pure 
and  simple.  His  interpretations  are  healthy  and  vigorous, 
and  especially  faithful  to  the  composers'  intentions.  His 
repertory  is  enormous.  He  has  made  several  extremely  suc- 
cessful tours  to  the  United  States.  He  has  traveled  also 
widely  in  Europe  as  well  as  to  South  America.  Bauer  is  one 
of  the  most  eminent  of  living  artists. 

Among  Norwegians,  Edvard  Grieg,  born  1843,  is  a  re- 
markable interpreter  of  his  own  individual  works.  Christian 
Sinding  and  Wilhelm  Stenhammar  also  deserve  mention. 

The  Italians  have  not  produced  many  remarkable  pianists, 
nevertheless,  several  are  well  known.  Chief  among  them  is 
Giovanni  Sgambati,  born  1843,  ^  pupil  of  Liszt.  Sgambati 
has  composed  charming  music  for  the  piano,  as  well  as 
chamber-music,  a  concerto  and  symphony.  He  is  director  of 
the  Academy  of  St.  Cecilia,  at  Rome.  Giuseppe  Buonamici, 
born  1846,  a  pupil  of  the  Munich  Conservatory  and  of  von 
Billow,  has  done  much  to  promote  music  in  Florence.  He 
has  been  connected  with  several  musical  socities  in  that  city, 
and  has  been  active  as  a  teacher.  His  editions  of  Beethoven's 
sonatas,  of  Bertini's  etudes,  and  a  treatise  on  scale  playing 
are  of  great  value  to  the  student.  The  most  prominent 
Italian  pianist,  who  has  lived  a  cosmopolitan  life,  is  Feruccio 
Busoni,  born  in  1866.  Early  in  life  he  became  a  member,  as 
a  pianist,  of  the  Bologna  Philharmonic  Academy,  after  a 
severe  test.  In  1888,  he  accepted  a  position  at  the  Helsing- 
fors  Conservatory.  In  1890,  he  won  the  Rubinstein  prize 
as  composer  and  pianist.  Subsequently  he  taught  the  piano 
in  the  Moscow  Conservatory,  and  later  he  was  connected 
with  the  New  England  Conservatory  at  Boston.  Since  then 
he  has  lived  in  Europe  as  a  pianist  and  conductor  of  ultra- 
modern music.  Busoni  has  one  of  the  most  formidable 
technics  of  any  pianist  living.    He  has  edited  Bach's  "Well- 


OTHER    PIANISTS.  449 

Tempered  Clavichord,"  with  many  helpful  technical  sugges- 
tions, also  the  smaller  preludes  and  inventions ;  he  has 
made  masterly  transcriptions  of  Bach's  organ  works  for 
the  piano,  of  a  fantasy  for  organ  by  Liszt,  the  same  com- 
poser's "Mephisto  Waltz,"  etc.  He  re-visited  America  in 
1904. 

Stephen  Heller,  born  1814,  died  1888,  was  much  influenced 
by  Chopin.  He  was  a  talented  pianist,  who  will  be  remem- 
bered chiefly  by  his  studies,  and  a  few  other  pieces,  which 
have  decided  educational  value. 

Among  other  living  pianists  who  escape  classification .  for 
one  reason  or  another  are  Moritz  Moszkowski,  born  1854,  a 
pupil  of  the  Dresden,  Kullak  and  Stern  Conservatories; 
while  a  successful  pianist  and  teacher,  he  is  known  chiefly 
for  his  fluent  and  graceful  piano  music,  although  he  has 
composed  works  in  larger  forms.  Franz  Rummel,  born  1853, 
died  1901,  a  pupil  of  Brassin  and  the  Brussels  Conservatory, 
toured  Europe  and  visited  America  several  times ;  he 
taught  at  the  Stern  Conservatory  in  Berlin ;  Bafael  Joseffy, 
born  1853,  went  to  the  Leipzig  Conservatory,  he  then  studied 
with  Carl  Tausig  and  later  with  Liszt ;  of  late  years  he  has 
taught  at  the  National  Conservatory  at  New  York.  His 
concert  appearances  have  invariably  been  successful,  al- 
though he  has  devoted  himself  largely  to  teaching.  A 
pianist  of  especial  distinction  is  Vladimir  de  Pachmann,  born 
in  1848,  a  pupil  of  the  Vienna  Conservatory ;  in  spite  of  a 
brilliant  debut  he  retired  for  many  years'  study ;  on  re- 
appearing he  gave  concerts  over  all  Europe,  and  has  made 
several  visits  to  America;  his  chief  triumphs  have  been  as 
the  inimitable  interpreter  of  Chopin ;  Leopold  Godowsky, 
born  1870,  appeared  as  a  prodigy  at  the  age  of  nine;  he 
studied  at  the  Hochschule  in  Berlin,  made  European  tours, 
and  studied  with  Saint- Saens  from  1887  to  1890;  taught 
in  Philadelphia  and  Chicago;  in  1902,  he  returned  to  Eu- 
rope. In  1909  he  went  to  the  Vienna  Conservatory  as  head 
of  the  master  school  for  piano  playing.  A  composer  of 
piano  pieces,  he  has  devised  many  extraordinary  versions  of 
Chopin's  studies. 


450  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Among  English  pianists,  Frederic  Lamond,  a  pupil  of  the 
Raff  Conservatory,  of  von  Biilow  and  Liszt,  and  Leonard 
Berwick,  a  pupil  of  Mnie.  Schumann,  are  the  best  known, 
although  there  are  many  pianists  of  rising  reputation. 

Two  young  pianists  deserving  of  especial  recognition  are 
Ernst  von  Dohnanyi  and  Josef  Hofmann.  Dohnanyi,  born 
1877,  is  a  pupil  of  Kessler  and  D'Albert.  In  1898,  he  won 
a  double  success  as  pianist  and  composer  with  a  piano  con- 
certo. In  1900,  he  made  a  brilliant  tour  in  America.  Since 
then  he  has  devoted  himself  largely  to  composition.  Josef 
Hofmann  was  a  pupil  of  his  father,  and  later,  of  Anton 
Rubinstein.  He  played  the  piano  wiien  six  years  old ;  in 
public  at  the  age  of  nine.  In  the  following  year  he  gave 
fifty-two  concerts  in  the  United  States.  After  retiring  for 
study  under  Rubinstein,  he  reappeared  a  mature  artist.  He 
has  since  visited  America  several  times.  Hofmann  has  an 
unusual  technic ;  his  individuality  is  not  striking,  but  he 
is  an  artist  of  conspicuous  merit. 

American  Pianists. 

The  rapid  progress  of  music  in  America  renders  it  im- 
possible to  do  justice  to  piano  playing  in  this  country.  How- 
ever, the  pioneer  work  of  William  Mason,  a  pupil  of  Mos- 
cheles,  Dreyschock  and  Liszt,  active  as  pianist  and  teacher, 
the  author  of  "Touch  and  Technic"  and  other  technical 
treatises;  of  B.  J.  Lang,  a  pupil  of  his  father,  F.  C.  Hill, 
Salter  and  Alfred  Jaell,  an  active  pianist,  teacher,  and  con- 
ductor, of  W.  S.  B.  Mathews,  Otto  Dresel,  Ernst  Perabo, 
and  others,  was  of  great  importance.  Later  Carl  Baermann,' 
a  Liszt  pupil.  Carl  Faelten,  William  Sherwood,  also  a  Liszt 
pupil,  Carl  Stasny,  Arthur  Whiting,  Edward  MacDowell 
and  many  others  have  continued  the  work  so  ably  begun. 
Edward  MacDowell  is  easily  the  most  noted  American  com- 
poser-pianist. His  technical  equipment,  personality,  and  in- 
terpretative gifts  justly  entitle  him  to  this  distinction.  A  pu- 
pil of  Mme.  Carreiio,  Marmontel  and  Carl  Heymann,  he  has 
had  thorough  training.  His  pianistic  career  has  been  limited 
by  his  efforts  as  a  composer,  and  by  his  work  as  Professor 


WOMEN    PIANISTS.  45 1 

of  Music  at  Columbia,  which  position  he  resigned  in  1904, 
as  well  as  his  activity  as  a  teacher.  His  studies,  concertos 
and  smaller  pieces  show  great  individuality  of  technical 
style,  besides  being  among  the  most  valuable  contributions 
to  piano  literature  since  Liszt.  Mac  Dowell  has  appeared 
with  leading  orchestras  in  this  country ;  he  has  given  many 
recitals,   including  a  tour  of  the  United   States   in    1904. 

Women  Pianists. 

Of  the  many  distinguished  women  pianists  since  Liszt,  the 
most  eminent  was  Mme.  Clara  Schumann,  a  pupil  of  her 
father,  Friedrich  Wieck.  She  played  in  public  from  the  age 
of  thirteen,  winning  instant  recognition.  Her  marriage  to 
Schumann  diminished  her  public  activity,  but  after  his 
death  in  1856,  she  resumed  her  career.  She  taught  at  the 
Hoch  Conservatory  at  Frankfort,  besides  playing  in  public 
in  Europe  and  England.  Among  other  famous  women 
pianists  were  Madame  Clauss-Szavardy,  Mme.  Arabella 
Goddard  Davidson,  and  Mme.  Sophie  M enter.  Mme.  Teresa 
Carreno,  a  pupil  of  L.  M.  Gottschalk  and  G.  Mathias,  has 
had  a  remarkable  career  as  concert-pianist.  Mme.  Essipoif, 
a  pupil  of  Wielhorski  and  Leschetizky,  taught  for  many 
years  at  the  St.  Petersburg  Conservatory,  after  brilliant  con- 
cert tours.  Miss  Fanny  Davies,  a  pupil  of  Reinecke  and 
Mme.  Schumann,  Mme.  Roger-Miclos  and  Mile.  Clotilde 
Kleeberg,  pupils  of  the  Paris  Conservatory,  are  all  pianists 
of  distinction.  In  this  country  Miss  Adele  aus  der  Ohe,  a 
pupil  of  Kullak  and  Liszt,  Mme.  Bloomfield-Zeisler,  a  pupil 
of  von  Wolfssohn  and  Leschetizky,  and  Mme.  Helen  Hope- 
kirk,  a  pupil  of  the  Leipzig  Conservatory  and  of  Les- 
chetizky, now  a  teacher  at  the  New  England  Conservatory, 
and  Mme.  Sznmowska-Adamowska,  before  mentioned  as  a 
pupil  of  Paderewski,  are  all  pianists  of  great  ability. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  stated  that  while  Liszt's  pupils 
have  done  much  to  carry  on  the  traditions  which  he  origi- 
nated, much  has  also  been  accomplished  for  the  advance- 
ment of  pianistic  art  by  Leschetizky  and  his  pupils,  a  re- 
markable group  of  teachers  at  the  Paris  Conservatory,  and 


452  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

by  such  independent  pianists  as  de  Pachmann,  Busoni,  Siloti, 
Godowsky,  Bauer  z'nd  Hofmann,  while  many  able  conserva- 
tories and  private  teachers  in  America  are  enabling  the 
American  pianist  to  compete  favorably  with  Europe, 

Questions. 

Who  is  the  best-known  piano  teacher  of  today? 

Name  some  of  his  famous  pupils.  Which  one  instituted 
prizes  for  American  composers? 

Name  some  pianists  who  have  profited  by  Paderewski's 
advice.    Which  one  has  made  successful  tours  of  America? 

Name  the  most  famous  Italian  pianists.  Which  one  has 
made  masterly  transcriptions  of  Bach  and  Liszt? 

What  pianist  has  made  a  specialty  of  Chopin? 

What  young  pianist  has  made  an  especially  brilliant  im- 
pression in  America? 

Name  the  pioneer  pianists  of  America. 

Who  is  the  most  famous  of  American  composer  pianists? 

Name  some  talented  women  pianists. 

Suggestions  for  a  Review  of  Lessons  XLI  to  XLVIIL 

This  period  is  of  great  interest  to  the  student,  as  the 
greater  part  of  the  piano  literature  in  use  today  is  the  work 
of  composers  belonging  to  the  Romantic  and  Post-Classical 
schools.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in  studying  the  his- 
tory of  music  the  object  is  to  learn  to  know  the  music  of 
the  best  composers,  not  merely  certain  facts  and  dates  in  the 
lives  of  these  composers.  The  works  cited  in  the  leSvSons 
give  a  wide  latitude  in  the  matter  of  choice  and  a  clear  idea 
of  the  contribution  of  the  different  composers. 

Lesson  XLI. — i.  Take  a  composition  by  each  of  the 
composers  mentioned  and  show  its  distinctive  qualities.  2. 
Show  the  deeper,  fuller,  more  poetic  character  of  the  com- 
positions of  Field  as  compared  with  Clementi. 

Lesson  XLII. — i.  Give  a  sketch  of  Schubert  the  man. 
2.  Name  the  special  qualities  of  Schubert's  music.  Why 
does  he  belong  to  the  Romantic  school? 


LESSON    HELPS.  453 

Lesson  XLITI. — i.  What  is  the  nature  of  Weber's  con- 
tribution to  music?  2.  What  are  the  special  qualities  of 
Mendelssohn's  works? 

Lesson  XLIV. —  i.  Compare  Schumann's  work  in  the 
short  pieces  and  in  the  large  forms.  In  which  was  he  the 
more  successful?  2,  Give  an  analysis  of  some  of  his  short 
pieces. 

Lesson  XLV. — i.  In  what  forms  did  Chopin  do  his  best 
work?  Mention  some  pieces  as  illustrations.  2.  In  what 
ways  did  he  show  national  spirit?     Mention  pieces. 

Lesson  XLVI. — i.  Give  a  sketch  of  the  important  factors 
in  the  making  of  Liszt  the  pianist.  2.  What  influence  did  he 
exert  on  music? 

Lesson  XLVII. — i.  Compare  Rubinstein  and  Liszt.  2. 
What  influence  did  Brahms  exert  on  music? 

Lesson  XLVIII. — i.  Make  a  list  of  the  various  pianists 
and  classify  them  as  to  nationality  and  school. 


LESSON  XLIX. 

The  Art-Song.     Oratorio  after  Mendelssohn. 

Development  of  the  Art-Song  Idea. — A  most  significan'i 
phase  of  musical  activity  is  that  centred  around  the  art- 
song  for  solo  voice.  In  the  period  before  the  opera,  choral 
singing  was  the  principal  medium  for  vocal  music.  With 
the  Opera  came  a  style  of  composition  from  which  was  de- 
veloped the  principle  of  the  Aria,  the  latter  dominating  both 
Opera  and  Oratorio  for  many  years,  as  the  form  for  an 
art-song  for  a  solo  voice.  In  this  form,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  production  of  vocal  effects,  the  making  of  attractive 
melody,  and  the  opportunity  for  virtuosic  display  were 
sought  first  of  all.  It  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century,  when  Schubert's  peculiar  genius  asserted  itself, 
that  we  meet  what  can  be  truly  called  the  art-song,  a  form 
of  composition  without  the  artificiality  of  the  operatic  aria 
and  with  higher  musicianly  and  artistic  qualities  than  those 
that  mark  the  people's  song.  Several  tendencies  contributed 
to  bring  this  about.  Gluck's  theories  and  practice  led  both 
composers  and  people  to  pay  closer  attention  to  the  text 
and  to  its  delivery.  The  development  of  instrumental  mu- 
sic, particularly  the  principles  of  thematic  treatment,  led 
composers  to  the  inventing  of  new  melodic  and  rhythmic 
figures  that  should  serve  as  the  basis  of  accompaniments 
of  higher  artistic  quality  than  those  founded  on  some  varia- 
tion of  the  Alberti  bass  figure.  Piano  technic  had  greatly 
improved,  and  so  had  the  instrument.  And  it  may  also  be 
said  that  the  verse  of  this  period  was  better  suited  for  a 
dramatic  musical  setting  than  the  formal,  often  stilted  and 
artificial  lyrics  of  earlier  days,  with  their  shepherds  and 
shepherdesses  and  constant  reference  to  pastoral  and  clas- 
sical life. 

(454) 


THE   GERMAN    LIED.  455 

Italian,  French  and  English  Forms. — A  study  of  musical 
conditions  in  Italy,  France,  Germany  and  England  shows 
a  different  style  of  the  solo  song  in  each  country,  each  hav- 
ing some  distinctive  feature  that  maintains  today,  and  one 
that  may  be  said  to  characterize  the  song-idea  of  that  peo- 
ple. The  Italians  were  so  taken  with  the  opera  and  in  the 
course  of  its  development  it  so  fully  embodied  the  national 
love  for  sweet,  graceful  melody  that  a  species  of  art-song 
apart  from  the  opera  had  little  or  no  chance  to  shape  itself. 
The  French  Chanson  has  never  yielded  place  to  the  meth- 
ods which  distinguish  the  modern  art-song.  The  French 
language .  has  certain  qualities  which  seem  to  call  for  a 
treatment  that  centres  the  attention  in  the  voice  part  rather 
than  on  the  song  as  a  whole,  according  to  the  German  idea. 
Yet  French  composers  have  produced  and  still  make  most 
beautiful  and  charming  songs  which  unmistakably  embody 
the  national  characteristics,  clearness,  polish  and  an  effective 
singing  melody.  The  old  English  Ballads  are  pieces  of 
narrative  verse;  but  the  term  has  been  used  so  freely  and 
for  almost  every  kind  of  verse  that  it  is  not  possible  to  give 
it  a  precise  definition.  Thomas  Morley,  in  a  work  on  music, 
which  he  published  in  1597,  mentions  "songs  which,  being 
sung  to  a  dittie  may  likewise  be  danced";  in  1636,  in  a 
book  called  "The  Principles  of  Musicke,"  the  author,  Butler, 
refers  to  "the  infinite  multitude  of  Ballads  set  to  sundry 
pleasant  and  delightful  tunes  by  cunning  and  witty  com- 
posers, with  country  dances  fitted  to  them."  The  principles 
of  musical  construction  and  the  character  of  the  text  are 
such  that  we  do  not  find  in  the  English  ballad  the  true  germ 
of  the  art-song. 

The  German  "Lied,"  a  poem  intended  for  singing,  as  it 
came  from  the  hands  of  the  great  poets,  such  as  Goethe  and 
Heine,  seems  to  have  afforded  to  composers  the  inspiration 
to  the  making  of  a  style  of  song  that  should  have  the  value 
of  a  musical  setting  in  full  consonance  with  the  character 
of  the  text.  As  instrumental  music  developed,  the  Volks- 
lied,  the  people's  song,  the  natural  medium  for  expression, 
gradually  disappeared.     Yet  composers  made  use  of  it  as 


456  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

a  medium,  such  masters  as  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven  and 
Weber  giving  attention  to  it,  although  the  demand  for  a 
simple,  clear  melody,  due  to  the  dominance  of  the  Italian 
opera,  and  for  an  accompaniment  that  was  always  much 
subordinated,  prevented  the  art-song  (Kunstlied)  from  tak- 
ing a  high  place.  Since  then  the  accompaniment  has  been 
given  more  and  more  prominence,  less  attention  being  paid 
to  pure  melody  and  more  to  the  value  of  harmony  and 
rhythm  as  the  means  for  characteristic  color  and  expres- 
sion. Melody,  which  is  made  up  of  a  succession  of  phrases, 
cannot  furnish  a  sequence  of  sharp  effects  so  readily  as 
can  well  contrasted  chords ;  hence  the  old  idea  of  tune 
changed  as  harmony  became  better  understood.  The  meth- 
ods of  song  composers  vary,  and  a  classification  is  made  by 
German  writers :  A  song  that  has  simple  form  and  tune 
akin  to  that  of  the  Folk-song  is  called  "Volksthumlich" ; 
one  that  has  the  same  tune  to  the  different  stanzas  is  called 
strophic;  one  that  is  carefully  worked  out,  the  music  illus- 
trating every  shade  of  meaning  and  emotion  is  called 
"Durchcomponirt" ;  a  narrative  song  is  called  a  "Ballad" 
or  "Ballade."  The  great  masters  in  song  composition  are 
Schubert,  Schumann,  Franz  and  Brahms. 

Schubert  as  a  Song  Writer. — A  consideration  of  Schu- 
bert's education  and  his  general  make-up  shows  clearly  why 
he  should  seek  outlet  for  self-expression  in  song  rather  than 
in  the  large  instrumental  forms.  We  find  that  he  was  not 
systematically  educated  in  musical  science,  like  Mozart, 
Beethoven  or  Weber,  and  that  he  was  by  nature  very  spon- 
taneous and  amenable  to  external  influences.  Such  a  com- 
poser is  particularly  open  to  the  effect  of  a  poem  and  will 
turn  to  the  small  song  form  rather  than  to  the  elaborate  in- 
strumental forms.  Many  of  Schubert's  songs  were  written 
on  the  spur  of  the  moment  in  response  to  an  impulse  from 
reading  a  chance  bit  of  verse.  The  first  reading  of  the  poem 
usually  gave  the  complete  idea,  both  tune  and  accompani- 
ment; whether  it  should  have  the  simple  folk-song  char- 
acter, a  more  declamatory  style,  strophic  or  the  more  elab- 
orate form,  depended  upon  the  character  of  the  text.    It  is 


SCHUMANN  S   SONGS.  457 

fortunate  for  music  that  he  was  brought  into  contact  with 
some  of  the  finest  lyrics  in  the  field  of  poetry,  such  as  called 
forth  his  highest  powers  in  melody,  harmony,  rhythm,  mod- 
ulation, declamation  and  recitative,  for  he  aimed  to  the  very 
fullest  extent  possible  to  heighten  the  thought  of  the  text 
by  the  emotional  power  of  music.  It  is  a  phase  of  Schu- 
bert's genius  that  some  of  his  finest  songs  were  written 
before  he  had  reached  his  majority. 

Schumann  and  His  Songs. — Schumann  brought  to  song 
writing  a  different  type  of  mind  from  that  of  Schubert, 
more  poetic,  more  gloomy,  more  emotional,  a  fine  literary 
training,  a  faculty  for  expression  in  word  as  well  as  in 
tone,  a  fund  of  new  forms  of  expression  in  instrumental 
music,  particularly  the  piano,  so  that  we  find  in  his  songs 
certain  elements  that  indicate  development  toward  a  more 
highly  organized  structure.  Schumann  was  highly  intel- 
lectual, hence  we  find  in  his  songs  a  close  union  of  voice  and 
instrumental  parts  in  working  out  the  fundamental  concep- 
tion of  the  poet's  meaning;  and  so  deeply  does  he  carry 
out  this  plan  that  the  accompanist  must  enter  most  thor- 
oughly into  the  singer's  part,  and  vice  versa,  that  the  full 
effect  be  brought  out ;  as  compared  with  the  songs  of  Schu- 
bert and  Mendelssohn  we  can  say  that  the  latter  are  the 
"verses  set  to  tunes,  while  Schumann's  songs  are  poems  in 
music."  The  piano  part  of  a  Schumann  song  contains  the 
atmosphere  of  the  poem,  is  an  attempt  to  heighten  the  mean- 
ing by  suggesting  thoughts  and  feelings  which  the  words, 
spoken  or  sung,  cannot  express;  sometimes  it  is  an  en- 
tirely independent  composition,  and  carries  out  to  a  final 
close  the  thought  left  unfinished  by  the  voice,  thus  avoiding 
the  conventional  ending,  by  the  singer,  on  the  tonic  chord. 
Schumann's  effort  was  to  express  his  own  reading  of  the 
poet's  lines  by  the  musical  means  that  seemed  to  him  best 
suited  to  the  purpose.  To  this  end  he  refused  to  allow 
himself  to  be  bound  by  conventional  treatment,  either  of 
voice  or  instrument. 

Robert  Franz  (1815-1892)  combined  in  his  songs  the 
romanticism  and  general   methods   of   Schumann,   with   a 


4S8  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

polyphonic  treatment  inspired  by  his  deep  study  of  Bach. 
He  wrote  to  various  styles  of  verse,  hymns,  love-songs, 
lyrics  of  the  field,  the  forest,  the  hunter,  the  soldier,  and 
though  his  songs  lack  the  tender,  passionate,  melodious 
quality  of  Schubert's  and  the  deep  poetic  feeling  of  Schu- 
mann's, they  are  nevertheless  models  of  perfect,  even  elab- 
orate workmanship  in  which  the  composer  follows  with 
great  faithfulness  the  mood  of  the  poet ;  Schumann,  on  the 
contrary,  seems  to  project  his  own  interpretation  of  the 
poem  into  his  music,  while  Schubert  seems  to  grasp  the 
emotion  at  its  highest  moment  and  the  song  pours  out  as 
the  spontaneous  expression  of  the  singer. 

Three  Modern  Writers. — Of  modern  writers,  those  who 
contributed  most  to  the  development  of  the  art-song  are 
Wagner,  Brahms  and  Richard  Strauss,  the  first-named  by 
his  style  and  treatment  of  the  voice  and  the  instrumental 
part  rather  than  by  his  songs,  which  are  few  in  number. 
Brahms  wrote  nearly  two  hundred  songs,  varying  in  char- 
acter and  quality,  and  using  a  highly-developed  accompani- 
ment, often  intricate  in  its  construction,  complicated  in 
rhythm  and  restless  in  harmonic  support,  employing  all  the 
resources  which  his  mastery  of  chromatic  harmony  placed 
at  his  disposal.  He  frequently  wrote  in  the  style  of  the 
Folk-song,  making  use  of  its  simple  melodic  quality,  en- 
riching it,  however,  by  his  great  skill  in  elaboration  in  the 
accompaniment.  Brahms'  songs  are  great  favorites  on  con- 
cert programs.  Eichard  Strauss  (b.  1864)  is  the  leading 
composer  of  today,  and  has  used  in  his  songs  the  principles 
that  distinguish  his  large  works.  These  songs  are  very 
difficult,  both  for  voice  and  accompaniment,  and  are  full  of 
tonal  coloring,  for  Strauss  has  adapted  to  the  miniature 
form  of  the  song  the  means  of  harmonic  and  rhythmic 
effects  which  he  uses  so  powerfully  in  his  orchestral  scores. 
When  well  sung  and  well  played,  the  hearer  cannot  but  be 
absorbed  by  the  wealth  of  musical  effects  of  the  highest 
emotional  and  picturesque  quality  displayed  in  Richard 
Strauss'  songs.  In  a  full  study  of  songs  and  song  writers, 
many  more  names  would  be  mentioned;   those  selected  for 


LATER   ORATORIO    COMPOSERS.  459 

consideration  in  this  lesson  represent  those  who  have  con- 
tributed most  significantly  to  the  development  of  the  modern 
art-song. 

Oratorio  Composers  after  Mendelssohn. — The  later  history 
of  the  Oratorio  requires  some  consideration  at  this  point. 
After  Mendelssohn,  many  of  the  leading  composers  of 
Europe  turned  their  attention  to  this  form  of  composition, 
influenced,  in  many  instances,  by  the  splendid  opportunities 
for  production  offered  by  the  strong  choral  organizations 
and  festival  associations  of  Germany  and  England,  as  well 
as  by  the  great  advances  made  in  orchestral  playing,  which 
gave  to  composers  resources  far  beyond  those  at  the  hand 
of  Mendelssohn  and  his  predecessors.  We  may  mention, 
among  the  Germans,  Schumann,  whose  "Paradise  and  the 
Peri"  was  produced  in  1843 ;  Liszt,  who  was  much  at- 
tracted to  sacred  subjects,  wrote  two  oratorios,  "The  Legend 
of  St.  Elizabeth"  and  "Christus";  Rubinstein,  who  used 
his  great  skill  in  tone  painting  with  orchestral  masses  in 
"Paradise  Lost"  and  in  his  sacred  opera  "The  Tower  of 
Babel";  Brahms,  whose  "German  Requiem"  is  a  standard 
work  to  be  done  well  only  by  thoroughly  disciplined  vocal 
and  instrumental  forces ;  and  DvoMk,  who  has  shown  great 
power  in  his  "Stabat  Mater."  Among  the  French  writers 
most  prominent  in  this  form  of  composition  are  Berlioz, 
whose  "Requiem"  is  a  colossal  work  in  which  he  drew  upon 
all  the  resources  of  the  orchestra  to  heighten  the  powerful, 
dramatic  character  of  the  text;  Gounod,  who  wrote  his  re- 
markable works,  "The  Redemption"  and  "Mors  et  Vita"  for 
English  production;  Saint-Saens,  whose  "Noel,"  a  Christ- 
mas work,  is  oratorio  in  style  and  construction,  although 
small  in  dimensions ;  and  C^sar  Franck,  the  most  modern 
of  all,  whose  "Beatitudes"  has  been  made  the  subject  of 
much  discussion.  English  composers,  following  the  lead  of 
Handel  and  Mendelssohn,  have  given  great  attention  to 
this  form.  Bennett,  the  friend  of  Mendelssohn,  produced 
a  beautiful  work,  "The  Woman  of  Samaria";  Costa,  an 
Italian  by  birth,  spent  a  great  part  of  his  professional  life 
m  England;  hence  his  oratorio,  "Eli,"  may  be  classed  with 


460  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

English  works ;  Sullivan  wrote  two  oratorios,  "The  Prod 
igal  Son"  and  "The  Light  of  the  World";  Macfarren's  "St. 
John  the  Baptist"  and  Mackenzie's  "Rose  of  Sharon"  can 
be  classed  among  oratorios.  The  most  eminent  in  this  form 
at  the  present  day  is  Elgar,  "The  Dream  of  Gerontius"  and 
"The  Apostles."  Young  Italy  has  lately  shown  interest  in 
this  form,  the  most  noteworthy  being  the  Abb6  Perosi,  who 
is  under  the  patronage  of  the  Pope.  In  the  United  States 
the  leading  representatives  are  J.  K.  Paine,  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, with  the  oratorio  "St.  Peter,"  Dudley  Buck,  "Golden 
Legend,"  and  H.  W.  Parker,  "Hora  Novissima." 

The  Cantata. — More  popular  even  than  the  Oratorio  with 
choral  societies  is  the  Cantata,  both  sacred  and  secular,  and 
the  great  increase  in  strong  choral  organizations,  partic- 
\larly  in  England,  Germany,  France  and  the  United  States, 
nas  resulted  in  the  production  of  a  number  of  splendid 
works  which  show  dramatic  power  and  the  highest  skill  in 
handling  voices  and  instruments.  These  works  contain  op- 
portunities for  the  use  of  the  finest  quality  of  melody, 
variety  of  rhythm,  solid  harmonic  or  the  more  fluent  poly- 
phonic style,  richness  of  harmonic  coloring  and  every  ac- 
cessory in  the  way  of  tone  painting  by  the  orchestra,  which 
such  masters  as  Berlioz  and  Wagner  pointed  out.  The  im- 
portant works  are  too  many  to  be  mentioned  here ;  only  the 
composers'  names  can  be  given.  In  Germany,  Brahms, 
Bruch,  Dvorak,  Gade,  Goetz,  Hiller,  Hofmann,  Rhein- 
berger;  in  France,  Berlioz  and  Massenet;  in  England, 
Bennett,  Corder,  Cowen,  Macfarren,  Mackenzie,  Smart, 
Sullivan,  Coleridge-Taylor  among  the  younger  men ;  in  the 
United  States,  Buck,  Foote,  Chadwick,  Gilchrist,  Paine, 
H.  W.  Parker,  and  Carl  Busch. 

References. 

Finck. — Songs  and  Song  Writers. 

Grove's  and  Riemann's  Dictionaries. — Articles  on  com- 
posers mentioned,  on  Song,  Lied,  Volkslied,  Chanson,  Ora- 
torio and  Cantata. 


LESSON    HELPS.  461 

Parry. — Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,  Chapter  XITT. 
Upton. — Standard  Oratorios.     Standard  Cantatas. 

Questions. 

Compare  the  Aria  and  the  Song. 

Mention  the  characteristics  of  the  ItaHan,  French  and 
Enghsh  people's  songs. 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  German  Lied? 

Give  a  sketch  of  Schubert  as  a  song  writer. 

Give  a  sketch  of  Schumann  as  a  song  writer. 

Compare  the  two. 

Give  a  sketch  of  Franz  as  a  song  writer. 

Compare  him  with  Schubert  and  Schumann. 

Who  are  eminent  among  modern  song  writers? 

Mention  the  special  characteristics  of  each. 

Name  the  leading  composers  of  Oratorio  after  Men- 
delssohn, and  their  works. 

What  is  the  difference  between  an  oratorio  and  a  cantata? 

What  composers  have  done  successful  work  in  this  line? 

Songs  of  the  leading  composers,  classic  and  modern, 
should  be  studied.  The  lessons  on  Schubert,  Schumann, 
Liszt,  etc.,  mention  notable  songs.  Analyze  an  oratorio  by 
one  of  the  composers  mentioned  in  this  lesson,  also  one  or 
more  cantatas. 


Kelix  VVeinoartneb. 

KlC'HABD   StBAUSS. 


GuSTAV  Mahler. 

SlEGMUND  HaUSEOOEB. 


LESSON  L 

The  Symphonic  Poem  in  Germany. 

Wagner's  Influence. — The  genius  of  Wagner  produced 
and  applied  to  Opera  a  far  richer  and  more  complicated 
orchestration  than  had  existed  before  his  day.  Since  then, 
in  many  periods  and  in  many  countries,  composers  have 
tried  to  adopt  his  style,  and  apply  it  to  the  symphonic  as 
well  as  to  the  operatic  stage.  In  the  field  of  parely  orches- 
tral music,  Liszt  and  Berlioz  had  already  formulated  a  free 
style,  and  their  symphonic  poems,  departing  from  the  set 
form  of  the  symphony,  have  also  served  as  models  for  later 
composers.  Almost  the  only  recent  exponent  of  the  strict 
form  was  Johannes  Brahms,  for  Anton  Bruckner,  working 
on  similar  lines,  did  not  achieve  great  success  with  the 
public. 

Richard  Strauss. — For  many  years  it  was  thought  that 
Wagner's  orchestration  would  remain  unrivalled  in  the  field 
of  music.  But  Richard  Strauss  (born  at  Munich,  Germany, 
1864)  has  made  a  further  advance  in  this  respect,  and 
handles  the  full  modern  orchestra  with  the  utmost  skill. 
Son  of  a  court  horn-player,  his  musical  genius  showed  itself 
in  his  earliest  years,  and  his  studies  with  the  court  capell- 
meister,  F.  W.  Meyer,  resulted  in  the  publication  of  several 
works.  At  first  he  followed  Brahms  and  the  stricter  school, 
and  his  F-minor  symphony  is  a  worthy  production  in  that 
form.  A  meeting  with  von  Biilow  led  to  his  appointment 
as  assistant-conductor  at  Meiningen.  To  show  his  ability, 
Strauss  had  to  conduct,  without  rehearsal,  his  Serenade, 
Op.  7,  for  thirteen  wind  instruments ;  and  the  excellence  of 
this  work  brought  him  the  desired  position.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  he  met  Alexander  Ritter,  a  man  of  broad  intellect 

(463) 


464  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

and  radical  ideas.  Under  the  new  influence,  Strauss  re- 
nounced his  classical  style,  and  began  to  compose  the  tone- 
pictures  and  symphonic  poems  that  have  made  his  name 
so  important.  As  he  is  the  chief  modern  representative  of 
the  new  school,  his  works  merit  detailed  examination. 

His  Early  Symphonic  Poems. — After  an  Italian  trip  in 
1886,  Strauss  gave  his  impressions  of  that  country  in  the 
form  of  the  symphonic  fantasie  "Aus  Italien,"  his  first 
work  in  the  free  style  of  subjective  emotion-painting.  It  is 
in  four  movements,  each  a  complete  tone-picture.  The  first, 
"On  the  Campagna,"  gives  a  vivid  impression  of  spacious 
solitude,  with  a  hint  of  the  pageants  and  battles  once  wit- 
nessed by  this  great  Roman  field.  The  second  movement, 
"Amid  Rome's  Ruins,"  aims  also  to  give  "fantastic  pictures 
of  vanished  splendor,  feelings  of  sadness  in  the  midst  of  the 
sunlit  present."  The  third  movement,  "On  the  Shores  of 
Sorrento,"  resembles  the  symphonic  .scherzo,  while  the 
finale  gives  an  animated  picture  of  "Neapolitan  Folk-Life," 
introducing  the  air  of  "Funiculi"  and  other  popular  Italian 
tunes. 

After  four  years  of  conducting  at  the  Munich  court 
theatre,  Strauss  settled  in  Weimar,  where  he  produced  three 
more  important  works.  The  first  of  these,  "Macbeth," 
showed  that  he  had  abandoned  the  old  form  in  favor  of 
the  symphonic  poem,  in  which  the  different  movements  are 
fused  into  one  large  whole,  free  in  form.  The  picture  of 
Macbeth,  ambitious  and  cruel  in  spite  of  his  timidity,  is 
ably  developed,  but  the  portrayal  of  Lady  Macbeth  brings  a 
still  stronger  climax  of  magnificent  orchestral  power. 

"Don  Juan,"  the  second  of  the  three,  is  founded  on 
Lenau's  poem.  The  hero  is  not  a  ruffian  adventurer,  as  in 
Da  Ponte's  libretto,  but  is  depicted  as  an  arch  pessimist, 
hunting  through  the  world  for  perfection  in  pleasure,  but 
never  finding  it.  There  are  restless  and  uncertain  melodies 
at  the  opening,  to  illustrate  the  hero's  unsatisfied  longing. 
A  knightly  theme  follows,  typical  of  Don  Juan  himself. 
Then  come  various  episodes,  full  of  attractive  enthusiasm, 
but  always  ending  with  the  same  vague  unrest.     A  wild 


PROGRAM    MUSIC.  465 

carnival,  followed  by  sudden  silence  and  the  cutting  theme 
of  a  trumpet,  announce  the  hero's  end. 

"Tod  und  Verklarung"  (Death  and  Transfiguration)  is 
a  work  of  great  power  and  beauty.  It  depicts  an  exhausted 
suflferer,  asleep  in  the  quiet  sick-room,  dreaming  of  the 
beauty  of  his  lost  youth.  Then  follows  a  more  discordant 
episode,  which  may  well  picture  a  fierce  contest  with  the 
powers  of  disease,  ending  in  defeated  exhaustion.  A  third 
portion  brings  renewed  memories  of  the  morning  of  life ; 
passages  of  joyous  enthusiasm  and  noble  aspiration  suggest 
the  high  hope  of  youth  and  the  glorious  achievement  of 
manhood ;  but  again  comes  the  struggle  with  the  powers  of 
Fate,  ending  in  despair  and  death.  The  fourth  part  is  an 
apotheosis,  representing  the  triumph  of  man's  upward  striv- 
ing over  death.  This  section  contains  some  of  the  most  im- 
pressive orchestral  beauties  in  the  range  of  Strauss'  works. 

Program  Music. — In  the  older  symphonic  form,  it  was 
not  necessary  for  the  composer  to  suggest  a  title  for  his 
work.  Many  have  done  so — Beethoven  in  his  "Pastoral 
Symphony,"  Mendelssohn  in  the  "Scotch,"  for  example; 
but  the  exquisite  beauty  of  Schubert,  or  the  romantic  charm 
of  Schumann  will  impress  the  hearer  without  the  use  of  ex- 
traneous suggestions.  In  the  modern  school  of  program 
music,  founded  by  Liszt,  the  composer  gives  the  audience  a 
more  or  less  detailed  account  of  the  subject  that  inspired 
him,  and  tries  to  paint  in  tones  the  events  or  moods  sug- 
gested by  the  title.  Much,  therefore,  depends  on  the  choice 
of  the  subject.  If  it  is  well-known,  and  gives  definite  sug- 
gestions of  certain  moods  which  can  find  expression  in  the 
orchestra,  then  it  may  receive  legitimate  treatment  by  being 
set  to  music.  But  if  the  subject  is  not  one  that  lends  itself 
to  broad  emotional  treatment,  or  if  the  composer  aims  to 
picture  definite  events  or  objects,  he  is  departing  from  the 
true  function  of  his  art.  Music  deals  with  expression  of 
emotion,  and  should  not  attempt  something  that  belongs 
rather  to  other  arts,  such  as  Literature  or  Painting.  Many 
persons  think  that  Strauss  has  gone  too  far  in  this  direc- 
tion, especially  in  his  later  works. 


466  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

His  Later  Symphonic  Poems. — In  "Till  Eulenspieg-el,"  the 
hero  is  a  mediaeval  rogue,  whose  adventures  are  found  in 
an  old  German  tale.  He  is  a  wandering  mechanic,  who 
does  anything  but  tend  to  business.  He  is  always  indulging 
in  madcap  pranks,  in  which  he  manages  to  escape  from  his 
well-merited  punishment.  In  the  composition,  Strauss  has 
given  free  rein  to  his  fancy,  and  portrayed,  with  rare  or- 
chestral skill,  the  fantastic  jokes,  the  sly  humor,  and  the 
rollicking  disposition  of  the  graceless  rogue.  The  work  is 
in  rondo  form,  with  definite  themes  to  typify  the  hero. 
These  themes  form  the  basis  of  the  music,  and  are  varied 
and  developed  wnth  infinite  skill  and  remarkable  orchestral 
irony. 

"Also  Sprach  Zarathustra"  (Thus  Spake  Zarathustra) 
is  based  on  Nietzsche's  mystic  philosophy.  Zarathustra,  or 
Zoroaster,  aims  to  teach  the  doctrine  of  the  "Over-Man," 
by  which  man  is  to  become  a  sort  of  demigod  who  rises 
above  good  and  evil  into  realms  of  joy.  A  picture  of  the 
"Hinterweltlern,"  or  dwellers  in  the  Rear-World  of  com- 
mon humanity,  portrays  their  yearnings,  their  joys,  and 
passions,  while  their  sorrows  find  voice  in  a  tender  "Grave- 
Song."  Science  and  its  futility  are  represented  by  a  fugue 
replete  with  chromatics.  A  passage  entitled,  "The  Con- 
valescent," shows  the  defeat  of  the  spirit  of  sorrow  and 
evil,  and  the  triumph  of  joy.  Then  follows  the  wild,  chaotic, 
but  strangely-eflFective  "Dance- Song,"  the  exultation  of  the 
"Over-Man."  Yet  his  triumph  is  not  lasting,  for  at  the 
close,  after  a  sudden  stroke  of  the  bell,  comes  the  weird 
"Song  of  the  Night-Wanderer,"  and  the  piece  ends  mys- 
tically in  two  different  keys,  as  if  representing  eternal  doubt. 
Strange  as  this  work  may  seem,  its  eflfect  is  one  of  vast 
sublimity,  and  Nietzsche's  wild  philosophy  is  translated  into 
orchestral  efifects  of  remarkable  grandeur. 

With  "Don  Quixote"  Strauss  enters  the  more  definite 
field  of  program  music,  and  aims  to  picture  events.  It  is 
cast  in  the  variation  form,  but  is  much  more  free  in  style 
than  that  title  would  imply.  There  is  a  theme  for  the  Don, 
clear  at  first,  but  becoming  obscure  and  illogical,  to  show 


SINFONIA   DOMESTICA.  467 

that  he  loses  his  sanity.  He  is  represented  by  a  solo  'cello, 
while  his  faithful  squire  Sancho,  strange  to  say,  appears 
mostly  in  viola  passages.  Each  variation  treats  of  one  ad- 
venture. The  windmills  are  attacked,  with  disastrous  results. 
The  flock  of  sheep  are  heard,  bleating  in  full  chorus  until 
put  to  flight.  The  bands  of  pilgrims  are  dispersed  as  rob- 
bers. The  blindfold  ride  through  the  air  on  the  wooden 
horse  is  made  realistic  by  the  use  of  the  theatrical  wind- 
machine.  Other  adventures  follow,  and  at  the  end  the 
knightly  theme  recurs  in  a  clarified  form,  to  show  Don 
Quixote's  return  to  reason  and  death.  It  will  readily  be 
seen  that  this  work  is  more  experimental  than  the  earlier 
ones. 

"Ein  Heldenleben"  represents  the  fight  of  Strauss  with 
his  adverse  critics.  There  are  six  well-marked  sections. 
First  comes  the  hero  himself,  portrayed  by  definite  themes 
that  are  woven  into  a  strong  climax.  Then  his  enemies 
are  depicted,  with  remarkable  irony,  by  a  medley  of  crack- 
ling, snarling  figures  for  woodwind.  The  hero's  helpmate 
is  represented  by  a  solo  violin,  and  in  this  section  an  instru- 
mental love-duet  is  introduced.  Then  follows  a  picture  of 
the  hero's  battlefield,  ending  in  a  song  of  victory.  The 
hero's  works  of  peace  are  then  described,  and  the  meaning 
of  the  composition  is  made  clear  by  the  introduction  of 
themes  from  the  earlier  works  of  Strauss.  The  final  sec- 
tion shows  the  hero's  departure  from  an  ungrateful  world. 
This  piece  is  grandly  planned,  but  like  other  orchestral 
works  of  Strauss,  its  themes  are  not  melodic  and  lack 
musical  charm. 

The  "Sinfonia  Domestica"  pictures  a  day  in  the  com- 
poser's family  life.  Here,  again,  the  subject  is  one  that  the 
hearer  cannot  understand  without  an  arbitrary  explanation. 
Strauss  has  given  no  complete  analysis,  but  has  deigned 
to  explain  that  the  three  themes  in  the  early  part  represent 
father,  mother  and  child,  that  the  picture  begins  in  the 
afternoon  and  lasts  until  the  next  morning,  and  that  the 
final  fugue  represents  the  education  of  the  child.  The  un- 
melodic  style  of  Strauss  is  little  suited  to  such  a  subject, 


468  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

and  the  effect  is  such  as  to  make  the  work  <'^em  puzzHng, 
at  first,  if  not  actually  ridiculous. 

His  Other  Works. — Of  the  two  early  operas  by  Strauss, 
"Guntram"  and  "Feuersnoth,"  neither  has  had  real  suc- 
cess; nor  does  his  third  production,  "Salome,"  seem  im- 
portant. Guntram  is  a  fighter  for  love,  a  member  of  a 
mystic  fraternity.  He  rescues  Freihild  from  the  tyranny 
of  Duke  Robert,  who  loves  her,  and  in  the  struggle  he  kills 
Robert.  Freihild  falls  in  love  w'ith  him,  but  he  must  re- 
nounce her,  as  he  knows  that  he  killed  Robert  out  of  rivalry 
in  love,  an  unworthy  motive.  "Feuersnoth,"  lighter  in 
style,  is  based  on  the  old  legend  of  a  scornful  maiden,  whose 
pride  meets  punishment.  All  fire  in  the  town  goes  out,  and 
no  light  can  be  rekindled,  save  by  a  touch  of  her  body ;  so 
that  she  finds  herself  exposed  to  the  multitude.  In  this 
work,  as  in  "Heldenleben,"  Strauss  has  introduced  veiled 
attacks  on  his  critics.  The  music  to  both  operas  shows  the 
usual  richness  of  coloring  and  orchestral  intricacy,  but  their 
themes  lack  the  direct  power  of  the  guiding  motives  in 
Wagner's  works. 

The  Songs  of  Strauss  are  many  in  number,  and  include 
some  with  orchestral  accompaniment.  They  show  a  mod- 
ulatory style,  combined  with  a  rare  melodic  beauty  that 
seems  strange  in  a  composer  who  indulges  in  so  much  or- 
chestral ugliness.  Some  of  these  songs,  such  as  "Traum 
durch  die  Dammerung"  or  "Allerseelen,"  are  gems  of 
purest  water.  The  songs  are  often  involved  in  style,  but 
always  possess  unity  and  directness  of  effect.  Their  beauty 
shows  that  the  discords  in  the  composer's  orchestral  works 
are  intentional,  and  not  due  to  lack  of  melodic  invention. 
Yet  it  would  seem  as  if  his  great  mastery  of  instrumental 
coloring  could  have  been  employed  as  effectively  in  scor- 
ing beautiful  themes,  instead  of  the  commonplace  passages 
so  often  found  in  his  larger  works. 

Hausegger. — Siegmund  von  Hausegger  (Graz,  Austria, 
1872)  is  another  master  of  the  modern  orchestra.  His 
father  was  a  musician  of  broad  experience  and  sound  learn- 
ing, so  that  it  is  not  strange  that  his  son's  gifts  developed 


HAUSEGGER.       MAHLER.  469 

quickly.  After  his  regular  studies  at  the  gymnasium  and 
the  university,  Siegmund  took  up  music  in  earnest,  under 
his  father  and  Degener.  His  youthful  works  were  now 
augmented  by  a  piano  quartet,  a  fantasia,  the  orchestral 
ballad  "Odinsmeeresritt,"  the  one-act  drama  "Helfried," 
and  the  opera  "Zinnober,"  based  on  a  tale  of  Hofmann. 
These  were  followed  by  a  number  of  songs  and  choruses, 
but  Hausegger's  real  greatness  was  first  revealed  by  the 
"Dyonisiac  Fantasie,"  a  symphonic  poem  for  full  orchestra. 
This  was  followed  by  a  still  greater  work,  "Barbarossa," 
while  in  1904,  at  the  Frankfort  festival,  came  "Wieland  dcr 
Schmied."  "Barbarossa"  is  in  three  movements.  The  first 
shows  the  happiness  of  the  people  gradually  fading  into 
sorrow  and  pain,  until  the  Barbarossa  theme  at  last  is  heard ; 
for  tradition  says  that  the  great  emperor  is  not  dead,  but 
sleeps  in  the  mountain  Kyffhauser,  waiting  to  arise  when 
the  need  of  his  people  is  too  great  to  be  borne.  The  second 
movement  is  a  weird,  ghostly  picture  of  i-he  enchanted 
mountain  and  the  sleeping  emperor;  while  the  last  depicts 
his  awakening,  his  coming  forth  at  the  head  of  his  knights, 
their  victory,  and  the  rejoicing  of  the  people.  Wieland  is 
the  wonderful  smith  whose  swords  cut  off  a  head  so  cleanly 
that  it  remains  in  place.  The  first  movement  shows  his 
vision  of  the  beautiful  maid  Schwanhilde,  appearing  from 
celestial  regions ;  but  when  he  would  claim  her,  she  re- 
treats, terrified.  A  second  part  shows  his  sorrow  and  de- 
spair. In  the  third  movement  hope  again  triumphs,  and  he 
forges  for  himself  a  pair  of  wings.  In  the  last  movement 
the  united  lovers  leave  the  dull  world  behind,  and  take  their 
flight  to  regions  of  eternal  sunlight. 

Other  Orchestral  ComposerSc  —  ^Justav  Mahler  (Kalisht, 
Bohemia,  i860)  gained  his  musical  experience  as  a  director 
in  some  of  the  lesser  theatres,  and  is  largely  self-taught. 
Besides  two  operas  and  a  number  of  beautiful  songs,  he  has 
composed  five  symphonies.  He  has  tried  to  enlarge  the 
symphonic  form  without  departing  from  it.  His  symphon- 
ies all  aim  to  express  some  definite  thought,  such  as  pes- 
simism finding  its  cure  in  simple  faith,  love  of  nature  leading 


470  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

to  a  high  idea  of  Pantheism,  or  doubt  clearing  in  the  joys 
of  immortahty.  The  movements  are  arranged  in  contrasting 
groups,  and  voices  are  introduced,  at  first  solo,  and  then 
often  in  a  final  chorus  of  triumph.  Mahler's  works  are 
planned  on  a  grand  scale,  but  his  music  is  often  unclear 
and  restless  in  effect.  Paul  Felix  Weingartner  (Zara,  Dal- 
matia,  1863)  is  another  musician  who  served  his  apprentice- 
ship in  the  smaller  theatres,  and  became  one  of  the  world's 
great  conductors.  He  is  known  by  his  two  symphonic 
poems,  "King  Lear"  and  "The  Elysian  Fields,"  as  well  as 
by  two  symphonies  in  strict  form,  and  by  several  chamber 
works.  His  opera  "Genesius"  and  his  classical  trilogy 
"Orestes"  are  other  successful  works.  Jean  Louis  Nicod^ 
(Jerczik,  Posen,  1853)  is  somewhat  older  than  the  modern 
tone-poets,  and  if  less  important  is  still  noteworthy  as  an 
exponent  of  the  program  tendency.  His  two  greatest  works 
are  the  "Symphonic  Variations,"  Op.  27,  and  "Das  Meer," 
for  rriale  chorus,  soloists,  orchestra,  and  organ.  The  latter 
is  not  a  cantata,  but  rather  a  great  suite,  in  which  vocal 
movements  are  balanced  against  orchestral  numbers. 
Among  younger  men,  Hugo  Kaun  is  familiar  to  Americans 
because  of  his  long  sojourn  in  Milwaukee.  His  symphonic 
poems  based  on  Longfellow's  "Hiawatha"  show  much 
fluency  and  taste.  Switzerland  now  has  its  set  of  young 
composers,  with  Hans  Huber  as  their  leader  in  the  orchestral 
field. 

The  Present  Situation.  —  The  rich  harmonies  and  free 
modulations  of  Wagner,  combined  with  the  setting  aside 
of  symphonic  form  by  Liszt,  have  caused  the  more  recent 
composers  of  Germany  to  give  up  almost  wholly  the  writing 
of  symphonies.  The  free  style  of  tone-picturing  has  been 
widely  adopted,  in  consequence  of  the  example  of  Strauss. 
He  has  gone  so  far  that  some  of  his  works  seem  merely 
colossal  experiments  in  this  direction,  and  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  a  revulsion  from  such  extreme  musical  impres- 
sionism will  take  place  some  time  in  the  future. 


lesson  helps.  47i 

References  for  Lessons  L  to  LVI. 

Baker. — Biographical  Dictionary  of  Musicians. 

Elson. — Modern  Composers  of  Europe. 

Hale,  Philip,  Editor. — Famous  Composers  and  Their 
Works,  new  series, 

Huneker,  James. — Mezzotints  in  Modern  Music. 

Weingartner,  Paul  Felix. — The  Symphony  Since  Bee- 
thoven. 

Questions. 

What  was  the  influence  of  Wagner's  style  on  symphonic 
music? 

What  was  the  nature  of  Richard  Strauss'  training  and 
the  direction  of  his  early  compositions? 

Describe  his  early  symphonic  poems. 

What  is  program  music? 

Describe  Richard  Strauss'  later  symphonic  poems. 

In  what  other  styles  of  composition  has  he  written? 

Give  a  sketch  of  Hausegger. 

Give  an  account  of  the  work  of  Gustav  Mahler. 
•   Give  an  account  of  the  work  of  Felix  Weingartner. 

Give  an  account  of  the  work  of  other  German  writers  of 

symphonic  poems. 

u 


LESSON  LI. 

German  Opera  Since  Wagner. 

Ooldmark. — Among  those  opera  composers  who  are  not 
direct  imitators  of  Wagner,  Carl  Goldmark  (Keszthely, 
Hungary,  1830)  is  the  most  noted.  Son  of  a  cantor  in  a 
synagogue,  he  showed  decided  musical  taste  while  still  a 
child,  and  at  twelve  played  the  violin  in  public.  After  a  few 
conservatory  lessons  at  Vienna,  he  was  forced  to  make  his 
own  way,  and  live  on  the  small  salary  obtained  in  theatre 
orchestras.  He  taught  himself  piano  and  singing,  and  was 
soon  able  to  teach  others  also.  He  trained  himself  by  read- 
ing the  scores  of  the  great  master-works.  In  purely  or- 
chestral composition,  his  first  success  came  with  the  "Sak- 
untala"  overture,  inspired  by  the  story  of  the  Oriental  nymph 
of  that  name,  who  is  wooed,  forgotten,  and  found  again  by 
the  Indian  king,  Dushianta.  Later  overtures  are  "Penthe- 
silea,"  "Spring,"  "Prometheus  Bound,"  and  "Italy."  Gold- 
mark  wrote  two  symphonies,  the  first  ("Rustic  Wedding") 
resembling  a  suite  of  tone-pictures,  while  the  second  is  in 
stricter  form.  He  has  also  published  a  violin  concerto,  some 
chamber  works,  and  vocal  pieces.  His  music  is  marked  by 
richness  of  harmony  and  warmth  cf  instrumental  coloring. 

Goldmark's  Operas. — His  first  opera  was  the  "Queen  of 
Sheba,"  dealing  with  the  infatuation  of  Assad  for  that  queen, 
at  the  court  of  King  Solomon.  Its  scenes  of  splendid  fes- 
tivity and  dramatic  power,  and  its  delightful  music,  won  it 
an  immense  success,  and  Goldmark  was  nicknamed  "Court 
Composer  to  the  Queen  of  Sheba."  "Merlin,"  his  next 
work,  is  based  on  that  wizard's  love  for  Viviane,  in  the 
days  of  King  Arthur.  It  contains  much  noble  music,  but 
the  libretto  is  weak  and  confused.  "Heimchen  am  Herd" 
is  an  example  of  the  style  of  Folk-opera  introduced  by 
(472) 


HUMPERDINCK. 


473 


Humperdinck.  It  is  a  setting  of  Dickens'  "Cricket  on  the 
Hearth,"  and  its  music  shows  a  most  deHghtful  freshness 
and  charm.  "Die  Kriegsgefangene"  treats  the  story  of 
Achilles  and  Briseis  with  much  expressive  power,  while 
"Gotz  von  Berlichingen"  is  a  setting  of  Goethe's  novel  of 
that  title.  "Der  Fremdling"  (The  Stranger)  is  a  manuscript 
work. 


Engelbebt  Humperdinck. 


Humperdinck.  —  Engelbert  Humperdinck  (Bonn,  Ger- 
many, 1854)  won  a  remarkable  success  with  his  Folk-opera 
'Hansel  and  Gretel,"  a  work  which  has  almost  founded  a 
new  school  in  Germany.  Humperdinck  studied  architecture 
at  first,  but  at  Hiller's  advice  took  up  music.  "Hansel  and 
Gretel"  is  the  story  of  two  poor  children  who  are  left  in  the 
woods  by  their  stepmother.    They  find  a  gingerbread  house, 


474  THE   HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

inhabited  by  a  witch  who  wishes  to  eat  them ;  but  Gretel 
pushes  her  into  her  own  oven,  and  frees  all  the  children  pre- 
viously under  her  spells.  The  greatness  of  this  work,  like 
that  of  Weber's  operas,  in  their  day,  lies  in  its  union  of  the 
popular  Folk-song  style  with  the  richness  of  modern  orches- 
tration. The  music  is  fresh  and  tuneful,  with  an  appealing 
sincerity  that  carries  it  directly  to  the  heart.  At  a  period 
when  other  composers  seemed  able  to  produce  nothing  but 
weak  imitations  of  Wagner's  operas,  this  work  won  uni- 
versal recognition.  Humperdinck  has  produced  several  other 
fairy  operas,  such  as  "Dornroschen,"  "Die  Konigskinder," 
"Saint-Cyr,"  and  "Die  Sieben  Geislein,"  but  none  of  them 
has  gained  any  lasting  success. 

Kienzl.  —  Another  composer  of  originality  is  Wilhclm 
Kienzl  (Waizen-Kirchen,  Austria,  1857).  He  studied  at 
Graz,  Prague,  Leipzig,  and,  finally,  with  Liszt,  at  Weimar. 
He,  too,  served  as  conductor  in  small  theatres.  His  first 
opera,  "Urvasi,"  is  based  on  an  East  Indian  subject.  Its 
music  is  brilliant,  but  lacking  in  dramatic  effect.  "Heilmar 
der  Narr"  deals  with  the  magic  healing  qualities  of  a 
seventh  son,  who  forfeits  his  power  if  rewarded ;  he  cures 
his  sweetheart,  but  loses  his  gift  because  he  wins  her,  where- 
upon she  sacrifices  herself  to  bring  back  his  skill.  Kienzl's 
greatest  work  is  "Der  Evangelimann,"  treating  of  a  true 
story  of  two  brothers  in  a  small  Austrian  hamlet.  Both 
love  the  same  girl,  Martha,  but  she  prefers  Mathias. 
Johannes,  out  of  jealousy,  sets  fire  to  a  house  where  the 
lovers  are  meeting,  and  denounces  Mathias  as  the  incen- 
diary. Martha  tries  in  vain  to  save  him,  and  he  is  im- 
prisoned for  twenty  years.  At  the  end  of  this  term, 
Johannes,  who  has  been  prosperous  and  respected,  is  con- 
fronted on  his  death-bed  by  Mathias,  who  forgives  him. 
This  opera  has  been  given  in  many  countries,  and  translated 
into  several  languages.  Its  music  shows  much  dramatic 
force,  and  goes  far  to  redeem  those  scenes  in  the  libretto 
that  are  lacking  in  action.  A  fourth  opera  by  Kienzl  is  the 
tragi-comedy  "Don  Quixote." 


FOLLOWERS   OF    WAGNER.  475 

Schillings. — Among  the  composers  who  have  modelled 
their  works  on  those  of  Wagner  is  Max  SchilHngs  (Duren, 
Germany,  1868).  He  studied  law  at  first,  like  Schumann, 
but  soon  turned  to  music,  and  became  one  of  Wagner's 
active  assistants  at  Bayreuth.  His  "Ingwelde"  is  one  of 
the  many  Viking  operas  that  have  followed  in  the  lead  of 
"Tristan  and  Isolde,"  and  aimed  at  effects  of  dramatic 
power,  Ingwelde  is  forced  by  a  careless  oath  to  follow 
Klause,  enemy  of  her  husband,  Gest,  Bran,  Klause's 
brother,  loves  her  also,  and  kills  Klause,  She  returns  to 
Gest,  but  Bran  follows  and  kills  him  too,  after  which  the 
pair  die  together,  "Der  Pfeifertag,"  a  later  work,  is  evi- 
dently inspired  by  "Die  Meistersinger,"  It  is  a  confused 
account  of  various  adventures  on  "Pipers'  Day,"  a  mediaeval 
festival.  The  chief  episodes  are  the  reduction  of  an  ex- 
cessive toll  paid  by  the  pipers,  the  pretended  death  of  one 
of  that  Guild,  who  thus  obtains  a  eulogy  from  a  rival,  and 
the  union  of  two  pairs  of  lovers.  The  music,  though  worthy, 
can  hardly  stand  comparison  with  that  of  the  great  work 
upon  which  the  opera  was  modelled, 

Cyrill  Kistler  (Augsburg,  Germany,  1848)  was  at  one 
time  thought  to  be  Wagner's  real  successor,  but  nearly  all 
his. works  are  now  laid  aside.  They  show  an  evident  striv- 
ing after  musical  grandeur,  but  are  not  wholly  successful 
in  attaining  that  effect.  Kistler  studied  with  Lachner  and 
others  at  Munich,  but  became  a  Wagner  enthusiast  in  spite 
of  their  formal  training.  In  his  first  opera,  "Kunihild,"  the 
heroine  is  wooed  by  one  of  three  brothers,  who  is  successful 
in  the  magic  ride  necessary  to  win  her.  But  there  has  been 
a  feud  between  the  houses,  and  another  brother,  to  prevent 
the  marriage,  kills  the  bridegroom.  A  comic  opera,  "Eulen- 
spiegel,"  preceded  by  ten  years  the  symphonic  poem  of 
Strauss,  "Baldurs  Tod"  is  based  on  the  beautiful  Norse 
Saga  of  the  Sun-God.  "Im  Honigmond"  is  a  smaller  work, 
in  romantic  style.  A  more  important  production  in  the 
same  vein  is  "Roslein  im  Hag,"  which  bids  fair  to  be  suc- 
cessful, "Der  Vogt  von  Miihlstein"  is  a  work  of  still  more 
recent  date. 


476 


THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 


August  Bungert  (Aliihlheim,  Germany,  1846)  studied  at 
Cologne  and  Paris,  taking-  up  composition  at  Berlin  under 
the  renowned  Fr.  Kiel.  He  has  produced  a  light  opera, 
"Die  Studenten  von  Salamanca,"'  a  "Tasso"  overture,  and 
the  symphonic  poem  "Auf  der  Wartburg."  But  his  life- 
work  has  been  the  composition  of  a  Hexalogy,  or  set  of 
six  operas,  on  Homeric  subjects.  The  first  two,  "Achilles" 
and  "Klytemnestra,"  are  from  the  Iliad,  while  the  Odyssey 
furnishes  the  material  for  "Kirke,"  "Nausikaa,"  "Odysseus 
Heimkehr,"  and  "Odysseus  Tod."     The  abiding  beauty  of 


Siegfried  Wagner. 


the  old  Greek  poems  has  been  faithfully  preserved  in  the 
librettos,  and  the  music  has  reflected,  to  some  degree,  the 
noble  dignity  of  these  epics.  The  first  three  works  of  the 
Odyssey  cycle  have  been  given,  and  have  produced  an  ex- 
cellent impression  on  the  critics. 

Siegfried  Wagner  (Triebschen,  Switzerland,  1869),  son 
of  the  immortal  Richard,  has  an  undoubted  right  to  carry 
on  the  family  traditions  He  studied  with  Kniese  and 
Humperdinck,  and  became  a  very  energetic  conductor.  His 
first  opera,  "Der  Barenhauter,"  is  the  story  of  a  mediaeval 
soldier  who  sells  himself  to  the  devil,  but  is  redeemed  by 


EUGEN    D  ALBERT.  477 

finding  a  sweetheart  who  will  remain  true  during  three 
years  of  absence.  "Herzog  Wildfang,"  the  next  work,  treats 
of  a  fiery  duke  who  is  made  unpopular  and  supplanted  by 
his  crafty  adviser,  Mathias  Blank.  Mathias  is  afterward 
caught  in  trying  to  win  the  beautiful  Osterlind  by  trickery, 
and  his  dishonesty  in  office  is  also  exposed ;  whereupon  the 
rightful  duke  comes  to  his  own  again,  and  Osterlind  marries 
her  real  lover.  ''Der  Kobold,"  a  third  work,  treats  of  the 
legend  that  the  souls  of  murdered  children  wander  about  as 
kobolds  until  released  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  last  of  their 
race.  "Bruder  Lustig,"  the  fourth  opera,  is  based  on  an 
Austrian  subject. 

D'Albert. — In  Eugen  d'Albert  (Glasgow,  Scotland,  1864), 
we  find  a  man  of  real  musical  gifts.  He  studied  under  such 
men  as  Stainer  and  Prout  in  England,  but  he  claims  that  his 
true  musical  education  began  only  in  later  days,  under 
Richter  and  Liszt.  He  has  won  international  fame  as  a 
pianist,  and  has  shown  real  musicianship  in  his  purely  or- 
chestral works.  These  include  two  concertos  for  piano, 
one  for  violoncello,  the  "Esther"  and  "Hyperion"  over- 
tures, and  a  worthy  symphony;  all  showing  harmonic 
beauty  and  richness  of  color,  without  any  inflation  or  exag- 
gerated effects.  His  first  opera,  "The  Ruby,"  tells  of  a 
princess  imprisoned  in  the  form  of  that  magic  gem,  but 
released  by  a  poor  young  man  who  wins  her.  "Ghismonda" 
deals  with  the  love  of  a  princess  for  a  young  man  of  low 
degree,  but  noble  character.  On  being  surprised  with  the 
princess,  he  dies  rather  than  reveal  her  love  for  him,  but 
she  proclaims  his  chivalry  to  the  world.  "Gemot"  is  an  elfin 
opera,  with  much  delicate  music.  "Die  Abreise"  shows  the 
reconciliation  of  a  married  couple  who  have  begun  to  drift 
apart,  and  the  departure  of  the  over-amorous  cavalier  who 
tried  to  widen  the  breach  for  his  own  purposes.  "Kain"  is 
a  weirdly  effective  one-act  drama,  of  the  realistic  school. 
•'Der  Improvisator"  has  for  its  libretto  a  rather  weak  ar- 
rangement of  Hugo's  "Angelo,  Tyrant  of  Padua,"  while 
"Tiefland"  is  founded  on  a  Spanish  tale,  in  which  true  love 
triumphs  over  the  schemes  of  a  wicked  Alcalde. 


478  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Hugo  Wolf  (Vienna,  Austria,  i860 — Vienna,  1902)  had 
a  constant  struggle  with  poverty,  and  enjoyed  but  a  short 
period  of  fame  before  yielding  to  insanity  and  death.  His 
opera,  "Der  Corregidor,"  is  a  delightful  work,  in  comic 
vein,  and  the  humorous  scenes  on  the  stage  are  treated  with 
remarkable  animation  and  skill  in  the  orchestra.  The  Cor- 
regidor is  a  Spanish  magistrate,  who  is  too  much  smitten 
with  Frasquita,  the  beautiful  w^ife  of  the  miller,  Tio  Lucas. 
The  pair  play  him  many  tricks,  and  the  opera  ends  with  his 
discomfiture  before  his  own  consort.  Wolf's  fame  is  much 
increased  by  the  rare  power  and  beauty  of  his  many  songs. 
Especially  worthy  of  note  are  the  "Feuerreiter,"  "Gebet," 
"Gesang  Weylas,"  and  the  "Italienisches  Liederhuch."  His 
symphonic  poem,  "Penthesilea,"  is  another  important  work. 
His  style  is  sometimes  bizarre  and  involved,  but  his  themes 
are  always  effective  and  significant. 

Other  Composers. — Max  Bruch  (Cologne,  Germany,  1838) 
studied  under  Hiller,  Reinecke,  and  Breuning.  His  chief 
opera,  "Hermione,"  is  not  important,  but  he  has  won  last- 
ing fame  by  the  breadth  and  nobility  of  his  epic  cantatas, 
such  as  "Frithjof,"  "Odysseus,"  "Arminius,"  and  others. 
His  concertos  and  serenade  for  violin  are  favorite  works 
with  soloists.  Ludwig  Thuille,  a  friend  of  Strauss,  is  given 
high  praise  by  musicians,  and  his  new  opera  "Gugeline" 
has  been  well  received.  Heinrich  ZoUner  has  won  a  popular 
success  by  his  setting  of  Hauptmann's  delicate  play,  "The 
Sunken  Bell."  Hans  Pfitzner  has  produced  an  excellent 
work  in  his  romantic  forest-opera,  "Die  Rose  vom  Liebes- 
garten."  Leo  Slech's  "Alpenkonig  und  Menschenfeind"  has 
received  numerous  performances,  while  E.  Klose's  fairy 
opera,  "Ilsebill,"  is  a  worthy  example  of  its  school. 

Opera  in  Germany. — Since  Wagner's  time,  there  has  been 
no  striking  development  in  German  opera,  and  his  works 
still  remain  by  far  the  most  important  in  that  field.  None 
can  rival  him  in  the  power,  variety,  and  expressive  qualities 
of  his  music.  Strauss  surpasses  him  in  intricacy  and  novelty 
of  instrumental  effects,  but  Wagner  himself  first  cleared  the 
path  in  which  Strauss  was  to  follow.    The  greatest  successes 


LESSON    HELPS.  479 

of  GolJmark  are  those  of  twenty  and  thirty  years  ago, 
Humperdinck's  one  chief  work  is  frankly  popular  in  style, 
and  its  attractiveness  cannot  fairly  be  compared  with  the 
grandeur  of  the  music-dramas,  even  though  it  should  found 
a  school  of  its  own.  Bungert's  works,  though  well  received, 
have  not  been  given  many  performances,  while  many  of 
those  who  have  tried  to  imitate  Wagner  have  echoed  merely 
his  outward  mannerisms,  and  not  the  inward  greatness  of 
his  works.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  a  world- 
genius  like  that  of  Wagner  does  not  appear  in  every  country 
or  every  century,  and  that  his  importance  prevents  his  suc- 
cessors from  gaining  their  full  meed  of  appreciation. 

References. 
Maitland,  J.  A.  Fuller. — Masters  of  German  Music. 
Elson,  Arthur. — Modern  Composers  of  Europe. 

Questions. 

Give  a  sketch  of  Carl  Goldmark  and  his  works. 

In  what  style  of  opera  has  Humperdinck  been  most  suc- 
cessful ? 

Give  an  account  of  Kienzl  and  his  most  important  works. 

Whose  works  seem  to  have  furnished  models  for  Max 
Schillings'  operas? 

Give  an  account  of  the  works  of  Kistler. 

What  is  the  great  work  of  August  Bungert? 

Give  the  stories  of  Siegfried  Wagner's  operas. 

Give  an  account  of  Eugen  d'Albert  and  his  works. 

Give  an  accoun/t  of  Hugo  Wolf's  works. 

What  other  composers  have  done  important  work  in  this 
field? 

Summarize  the  work  of  the  leading  composers  mentioned 
in  this  lesson. 


Vincent  D'Indt. 
Camille  Saint-Saens. 


Cesab  Fbanck. 
JuiiES  Massenet. 


I  LESSON  Lll. 

Old  and  New  Schools  in  France, 

Saint-Saens. — The  end  of  the  19th  century  in  France  has 
been  marked  by  a  decided  contrast  between  the  old  and  the 
new,  Saint-Saens  and  Massenet  writing  in  the  older  style, 
while  the  pupils  of  Franck  have  striven  after  novelty  in 
effect.  Charles-Camille  Saint-Saens  (Paris,  France,  1835) 
witnessed  the  rise  and  fall  of  Meyerbeer,  and  the  triumphs 
of  Gounod,  and  was  himself  famous  before  the  influence  of 
Wagner  reached  France.  His  style  is  marked  by  great 
diversity,  and  displays  equal  skill  in  many  different  veins ; 
but  his  music  always  shows  the  utmost  facility  of  expres- 
sion, a  mastery  of  the  technic  of  composing,  and  a  remark- 
able ease  and  fluency.  His  has  been  a  true  musical  develop- 
ment, founded  on  rational  lines.  He  was  always  a  warm 
admirer  of  Bach,  Beethoven,  and  the  Classical  school,  and 
while  he  appreciated  Liszt,  Wagner  and  other  modern  mas- 
ters, he  did  not  abandon  the  old  ideas  of  form  and  melody. 
His  works  show  the  most  exquisite  symmetry  of  detail,  like 
that  of  a  finely-carved  monument  enriched  by  delicate 
tracery. 

His  Works.  —  Saint-Saens  studied  at  the  Conservatoire, 
under  Stamaty,  Halevy,  and  Benoist.  Though  he  failed  in 
trying  for  the  Prix  de  Rome,  he  produced  a  worthy  sym- 
phony when  only  sixteen.  In  opera,  his  first  success  was 
the  Biblical  "Samson  and  Dalila,"  a  work  of  expressive 
power  and  vivid  coloring.  "Le  Timbre  d'Argent"  and  "La 
Princesse  Jaune"  are  of  earlier  date.  "Le  Deluge,"  is  an 
operatic  cantata.  "Etienne-Marcel"  won  some  success  in 
Paris,  while  "Henry  VHI"  is  a  skilful  blending  of  old  and 
new  styles.     "Proserpine"  and  "Ascanio"  followed,  while 

(481) 


482  THE   HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

"Phryne"  is  a  dainty  example  of  opera  comique.  "Pary- 
satis,"  "Dejanire,"  and  "Les  Barbares"  introduce  grandiose 
effects  for  open-air  performances.  "Helene"  is  a  shorter 
work,  again  on  a  Grecian  subject.  The  composer's  versa- 
tility and  smoothness  of  style  prevent  him  from  obtaining 
the  highest  dramatic  intensity,  but  his  music  is  always  ex- 
cellent. In  the  orchestral  field,  he  has  produced  four  later 
symphonies,  five  piano  concertos  (that  in  G  minor  being 
the  favorite) ,  and  two  suites.  His  symphonic  poems  include 
"Le.  Rouet  d'Omphale,"  a  delicious  orchestral  spinning- 
song;  "Phaeton"  and  "La  Jeunesse  d'Hercule,"  also  on 
mythical  subjects;  and  the  weird  ''Danse  Macabre."  His 
violin  concerto  in  B  minor  is  a  great  favorite. 

Massenet. — Jules  Emile  Frederic  Massenet  (Montreaux, 
1842-1912)  was  another  Conservatoire  pupil.  Rejected  at 
first  by  Bazin,  as  lacking  talent,  he  worked  steadily  onward, 
and  from  a  player  in  small  cafes  became  one  of  the  foremost 
figures  in  French  music.  His  first  great  triumph  came  with 
"Marie  Madeleine"  and  "Eve,"  which  are  not  strictly  ora- 
torios, but  are  more  properly  called  sacred  dramas.  "La 
Vierge"  and  "La  Terre  Promise"  are  of  later  date.  These 
works  treat  their  subjects  with  modern  spirit  and  passion, 
instead  of  the  more  classic  oratorio  style.  Massenet  was 
hardly  the  equal  of  Saint-Saens  in  orchestral  work,  but  his 
"Phedre"  overture  and  his  suites  of  tone-pictures  are  re- 
markably attractive.  In  opera,  he  won  his  spurs  with  "Le 
Roi  de  Lahore,"  a  spectacular  Oriental  subject.  "Hero- 
diade"  is  a  sacred  work,  while  "Manon"  is  a  graceful  setting 
of  Prevost's  novel  of  that  name.  "Le  Cid"  is  not  so  strong 
a  work,  for  Massenet's  style  is  sentimental  and  passionate 
rather  than  heroic.  "Esclairmonde,"  with  a  romantic  and 
legendary  plot,  displays  remarkable  beauty  and  richness  of 
effect.  "Werther,"  based  on  Goethe's  novel,  is  another  suc- 
cess. "Le  Mage,"  an  Oriental  subject,  and  "Thais,"  with 
an  Egyptian  plot,  were  comparative  failures.  "La  Navar- 
raise,"  with  its  love  amid  battles,  is  an  echo  of  Italian 
realism.  Massenet's  tender  feeling  and  vivid  emotion  show 
at  their  best  in  his  later  works  for  the  stage — "Le  Portrait  de 


CESAR   FRANCK.  483 

Manon,"  a  delightful  love-idyl,  "Cendrillon,"  a  fairy  opera, 
"Griselidis,"  an  old  legend  of  wifely  constancy,  and  "Le 
Jongleur  de  Notre-Dame."  The  last  is  a  touching  story  of 
a  despised  minstrel  who  wins  favor  with  the  Holy  Virgin 
by  his  earnest  desire  to  do  something  in  her  name,  even  if 
it  be  only  to  amuse  her  with  his  juggling  tricks. 

French  Opera. — Among  other  French  composers  for  the 
stage,  Meyerbeer,  Gounod  and  Bizet  belong  to  a  previous 
generation.  Delibes  won  some  notice  with  "Le  Roi  I'a  Dit" 
and  "Sylvia,"  but  his  best  work  is  "Lakme,"  another  ex- 
ample of  rich  Oriental  warmth  and  color.  Ambroise  Thomas 
is  known  chiefly  as  the  compo^r  of  "Mignon,"  a  remark- 
ably graceful  setting  of  a  libretto  from  Goethe's  "Wilhelm 
Meister."  "Le  Songe  d'un  Nuit  d'fite,"  an  earlier  work, 
has  also  met  with  deserved  success,  but  "Hamlet"  is  a  ridic- 
ulous perversion  of  Shakespeare,  and  "Frangoise  de  Rimini" 
failed  to  attain  real  tragic  grandeur.  Guiraud  is  known  by 
his  comic  opera  "Piccolino" ;  Poise  set  many  of  Moliere's 
plays ;  Lalo's  only  notable  work  is  "Le  Roi  d'Ys" ;  Godard's 
dainty  "Vivandiere"  is  frankly  light  in  style;  while  Sal- 
vayre's  ambitious  "Dame  de  Monsoreau"  is  not  a  great  suc- 
cess. Reyer's  "Erostrate"  and  "La  Statue"  were  praised  in 
their  day,  but  he  is  better  known  by  two  later  works — 
"Sigurd,"  on  the  subject  of  "Die  Gotterdammerung,"  and 
"Salammbo,"  a  setting  of  Flaubert's  story  of  Carthage. 

Franck  and  His  Influence. — The  new  French  school  is  al- 
most wholly  due  to  the  work  of  one  man,  Cesar  Augusta 
Franck  (Liege,  Belgium,  1822 — Paris,  1890).  He  settled 
in  Paris,  and  studied  at  the  Conservatoire.  Modest  and  re- 
tiring by  nature,  "le  bon  pere  Franck,"  as  he  was  called, 
divided  his  time  between  teaching,  composing,  and  playing 
the  organ  of  the  Ste.  Clotilde  Church.  His  simple  faith 
and  earnest  work  recall  the  spirit  of  the  old  mediaeval  artists, 
who  devoted  their  lives  and  their  music  to  the  glory  of  the 
Lord.  Franck's  works  show  a  mastery  and  power  that  his 
pupils  are  scarcely  able  to  equal,  and  his  compositions  have 
fairly  won  the  esteem  that  was  denied  to  them  during  the 
composer's  lifetime.    Amon^  them  are  the  g^reat  P  minor 


484  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Symphony,  the  oratorios  "Ruth,"  "Rebecca,"  and  "The 
Redemption,"  the  opera  "Hulda,"  and  the  symphonic  poems 
"Psyche"  (with  voices),  "Les  Djinns,"  "Les  EoHdes,"  and 
"Le  Chasseur  Maudit."  But  Franck's  most  notable  work  is 
"Les  Beatitudes,"  an  eight-part  oratorio  treating  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount.  Franck's  style  is  radically  different  from 
that  of  Saint-Saens  or  Massenet.  It  is  harmonic  rather 
than  melodic,  and  extremely  modulatory  in  effect.  His  pro- 
gressions remind  the  hearer  of  Wagner;  but  they  do  not 
always  possess  the  broad  simplicity  that  underlies  Wagner's 
most  intricate  passages.  Franck's  pupils  have  often  fallen 
into  the  error  of  imitating'  his  weakest  points,  and  ha\e 
brought  about  a  style  of  harmonic  vagueness  that  seems 
meaningless  to  many  modern  critics. 

D'lndy. — Vincent  d'Indy  (Paris,  France,  1852)  is  the 
greatest  of  Franck's  pupils,  and  the  leader  of  the  modern 
French  school.  As  conductor,  he  has  been  an  ardent  cham- 
pion of  new  and  little-known  works.  His  own  compositions 
include  many  forms,  and  have  all  attracted  attention.  His 
first  great  work  to  reach  the  public  was  the  "Piccolomini" 
overture,  a  part  of  his  orchestral  trilogy  based  on  Schiller's 
"Wallenstein."  Two  important  vocal  compositions  are  "La 
Chevauchee  du  Cid,"  for  baritone,  chorus,  and  orchestra, 
and  "Le  Chant  de  la  Cloche,"  a  dramatic  legend  that  won 
the  prize  given  by  the  city  of  Paris.  In  the  orchestral  field, 
"Antony  and  Cleopatra"  is  an  early  work,  as  is  also  the 
"Jean  Hunyadi"  symphony.  Of  d'Indy 's  two  later  sym- 
phonies, the  first,  based  on  a  mountain  air,  contains  many 
passages  of  sweetness  and  purity,  while  the  second  is  more 
involved  and  modulatory  in  style.  His  earliest  symphonic 
poem,  "La  Foret  Enchantee"  is  a  delicate  tone-picture  based 
on  a  ballad  of  Uhland;  "Saugefleurie"  is  founded  on  a 
story  by  de  Bonnieres ;  while  "Istar"  is  inspired  by  parts  of 
the  old  Assyrian  epic  "Idzubar,"  D'Indy's  music  is  hardly 
popular  in  style,  for  its  themes  are  not  definitely  melodic; 
but  his  skill  in  weaving  them  into  an  orchestral  tissue  is 
admired  by  all  musicians.  In  opera,  "Les  Burgraves"  and 
the  lighter  "Attendez-Moi  Sous  TOrme"  are  youthful  works, 


CHARPENTIER.      BRUNEAU.  485 

while  "Fervaal"  is  a  music-drama  (action  musicale)  on  a 
Druidic  subject,  and  "L'Etranger"  is  symbolic  in  style.  He 
has  written  some  important  works  in  musical  literature  and 
theory. 

Charpentier.  —  Gustave  Charpentier  (Dieuze,  France, 
i860)  was  a  Conservatoire  pupil.  The  Prix  de  Rome  took 
him  to  Italy,  and  his  life  there  resulted  in  the  pleasing  or- 
chestral suite  "Impressions  d'ltalie."  This  consists  of  five 
tone-pictures,  entitled,  "Serenade,"  "At  the  Fountain,"  "On 
Muleback,"  "On  the  Summits,"  and  "Naples."  On  his  re- 
turn he  lived  among  the  working-people  of  Montmartre, 
and  their  life  is  reflected  in  his  later  works.  "La  Vie  du 
Poete"  is  a  symphony-drama,  giving  episodes  in  the  life  of 
an  unsuccessful  genius.  In  the  beginning,  all  is  aspiration 
and  enthusiasm.  Then  doubt  follows.  At  first  the  poet  is 
consoled  by  the  serene  beauty  of  the  summer  night,  but  his 
fears  gain  the  upper  hand.  Then  comes  a  picture  of  im- 
potent raging  and  vain  anger  against  fate,  after  which  the 
poet  tries  to  blot  out  his  sorrows  in  the  cheap  gayety  of  the 
city.  "La  Couronnement  de  la  Muse"  is  a  pantomime,  writ- 
ten with  the  idea  that  a  working  girl  in  each  town  or  city 
should  annually  be  chosen  and  crowned  amid  festivities. 
The  composer's  greatest  work,  however,  is  the  opera 
"Louise."  This  tells  the  story  of  a  poor  working  girl, 
whose  parents  forbid  her  to  marry  the  somewhat  wayward 
Julien.  At  the  latter's  persuasion,  she  finally  flies  with  him. 
Her  parents  try  to  reclaim  her,  but  again  she  is  drawn  away, 
and  her  father  is  left  shaking  his  fist  at  the  terrible  city 
that  entices  young  girls  from  their  homes.  The  music  of 
"Louise"  is  full  of  power  and  realism,  and  even  the  street 
cries  of  Paris  are  echoed  in  its  measures. 

Bruneaii. — Operatic  realism  has  found  a  more  prolific,  if 
less  successful,  champion  in  Alfred  Bruneau  (Paris,  France, 
1857),  another  Conservatoire  pupil.  He  has  confined  him- 
self to  librettos  drawn  from  the  novels  of  Zola.  "Le  Reve," 
an  early  work,  is  a  psychological  study  of  love,  in  the  per- 
son of  the  dreamy  Angelique,  who  dies  from  excess  of  hap- 
piness  when  her  wedding  is   completed.     "L'Attaque   du 


486  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Moulin"  is  a  spirited  story  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  set 
in  a  more  melodic  and  popular  style.  "Messidor"  is  again 
symbolic  in  style,  the  theme  being  a  contrast  between  greed 
for  gold  and  the  simple  pleasure  of  honest  toil.  "L'Oura- 
gan"  deals  with  the  tempests  of  human  passion  and  jealousy, 
as  well  as  the  hurricanes  of  nature.  "L'Enfant  Roi,"  and 
the  music  to  "La  Faute  de  I'Abbe  Mouret,"  are  more  recent 
works.  Bruneau  is  sincere  and  earnest  in  his  efforts  at 
realism,  but  his  music  is  often  heavy  and  uninspired.  He 
has  produced  works  in  other  fields,  among  them  being  a 
great  "Requiem,"  a  "Heroic  Overture,"  and  the  symphonic 
poem  "Penthesilee,"  for  voice  and  orchestra.  His  three 
books  on  French  composers,  and  his  many  criticisms,  have 
made  him  known  in  the  domain  of  musical  literature. 

Debussy. — The  new  school  of  French  m^sic  finds  its  most 
radical  expression  in  the  compositions  of  Achille  Claude 
Debussy  (Paris,  France,  1862).  A  musician  of  great  gifts, 
he  chooses  to  imbue  his  music  with  a  studied  vagueness  of 
effect,  and  wanders  through  a  maze  of  changing  keys  and 
harmonies.  Many  persons  find  the  result  wholly  incompre- 
hensible at  first,  but  on  repeated  hearing  his  works  show  a 
weird,  elusive  beauty  that  is  worshipped  by  his  adherents 
as  the  acme  of  musical  expression.  He,  too,  was  a  Co7i- 
servatoire  student,  and  won  the  Prix  de  Rome  with  the 
cantata  "L'Enfant  Prodigue."  Two  lyric  scenes,  "La 
Demoiselle  £lue,"  and  "Chimene,"  first  drew  attention  to 
the  young  artist.  Then  came  the  orchestral  prelude  to 
Mallarme's  "L'Apres-Midi  d'un  Faune,"  a  delicately-woven 
rhapsody,  with  much  beauty  and  much  weirdness  in  its  har- 
monies. The  Nocturnes,  entitled,  "Nuages"  and  "Fetes," 
are  described  by  De  Breville  as  possessing  the  ethereal  charm 
of  a  perfume  that  pervades  the  air,  but  defies  analysis.  A 
string  quartet  is  in  stricter  form,  but  the  "Proses  Lyriques," 
on  subjects  of  Beaudelaire,  also  the  "Chansons  de  Bilitis" 
and  "Les  Estampes"  for  piano,  again  show  the  free  style. 
Debussy's  most  ambitious  work  is  "Pelleas  et  Melisande," 
an  opera  based  on  Maeterlinck's  play  of  that  name.  The 
poet's  vvords  offer  the  same  shadgwy  suggestions  that  th? 


REPRESENTATIVE    FRENCH    COMPOSERS.  487 

composer  gives  in  music,  and  the  harmonic  effects  of  vague 
mystery  are  entirely  in  place  here. 

Chausson.  —  Ernest  Chausson  (Paris,  France,  1855 — • 
Limay,  1899)  proved  himself  a  composer  of  real  greatness, 
and  was  still  in  the  prime  of  life  when  he  met  with  a  fatal 
bicycle  accident,  in  1899.  Trained  for  law,  he  turned  to 
music  from  choice,  as  Schumann  did  before  him.  A  pupil 
of  Massenet  and  Franck,  he  combined  the  direct  expression 
of  the  former  with  the  harmonic  style  of  the  latter,  and 
produced  works  of  a  most  attractive  orchestral  coloring. 
Among  his  compositions  are  a  worthy  symphony,  the  beauti- 
ful symphonic  poem  "Viviane,"  the  orchestral  pictures 
"Solitude  dans  les  Bois"  and  "Soir  de  Fete,"  a  "Poeme" 
for  violin  and  orchestra,  some  chamber-music,  and  many 
pleasing  songs  and  choruses.  Flis  one  great  opera  was  "Le 
Roi  Arthus."  His  works  are  full  of  tenderness  and  charm, 
yet  not  lacking  in  vigor  and  breadth ;  they  have  the  modern 
harmonic  richness  and  orchestral  color,  and  are  growing 
steadily  in  favor. 

Other  Composers. — Alexis  Emanuel  Chabrier,  wholly  self- 
taught  in  music,  produced  the  brilliant  orchestral  rhapsody 
"Espafia,"  an  attractive  "Suite  Pastorale,"  a  lively  "Marche 
Joyeuse,"  and  some  effective  cantatas.  In  opera,  his  "Le 
Roi  Malgre  Lui"  is  an  excellent  example  in  lighter  vein,  but 
his  greatest  work  is  "Gwendoline,"  on  a  Viking  subject.  Of 
all  the  Frenchmen,  he  was  the  one  best  fitted  to  attempt  the 
bold,  virile  style  required  by  the  libretto.  The  most  promi- 
nent orchestral  writer  of  the  younger  generation  is  Paul 
Dukas,  whose  "Apprenti  Sorcier"  treats  a  humorous  subject 
with  rare  skill.  Theodore  Dubois,  for  many  years  head  of 
the  Conservatoire,  is  best  known  by  his  oratorios,  such  as 
"Paradise  Lost,"  and  his  "Frithjof"  overture.  Gabriel 
Faur^,  the  organist,  who  succeeded  Dubois  as  director  of 
the  Conservatoire  in  1905,  has  produced  a  symphony,  two 
string  quartets,  and  a  number  of  songs  whose  intricacy  can- 
not obscure  their  exquisite  grace.  Other  organist-composers 
are  Charles  Marie  Widor,  who  wrote  the  opera  "Maitre 
Ambros"   and   the   ballet   "La   Korrigane,"   and   Alexandre 


488  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Guilmant,  known  by  his  great  organ  symphony  and  sonatas. 
Bourgault-Ducoudray  (d.  1910)  wrote  many  cantatas,  and 
made  a  vahiable  collection  of  Breton  Folk-songs.  Piem€. 
Coquard,  Erlanger  and  Hue  won  their  fame  in  opera,  while 
Duparc  gained  notice  with  his  symphonic  poem,  "Lenore." 
Kopartz  and  de  Breville  rank  with  the  best  of  Franck's  ])u- 
pils,  while  among  women-composers,  Augusta  Holmes  (died 
1903)  won  renown  l)y  her  mastery  of  broad  orchestral 
effects,  and  Cecile  Chaminade  is  known  by  her  dainty  songs 
and  piano  pieces. 

The  New  French  School. — When  Wagner  showed  the 
harmonic  resources  of  the  modern  orchestra,  he  led  the  way 
for  a  host  of  imitators,  who  have  often  done  more  harm 
than  good.  Such  operas  as  "Fervaal"  and  "Gwendoline," 
in  large  measure  the  result  of  "Tristan,"  are  proper  ap- 
pHcations  of  this  style.  But  the  idea  of  finding  new  har- 
monic effects  has  exerted  its  influence  on  orchestral  writers 
also,  and  some  modern  composers,  especially  in  France, 
have  devoted  all  their  energy  to  this,  and  have  apparently 
sacrificed  all  thoughts  of  musical  beauty.  The  French  have 
even  invented  the  term  "cerebral,"  which  describes  a  com- 
poser who  puts  no  emotion  or  feeling  into  his  music,  but 
works  it  out  wholly  from  the  brain.  Thus  many  of  the 
modern  compositions  must  be  regarded  as  great  orchestral 
experiments,  and  the  composer  who  combines  this  instru- 
mental technic  with  real  feeling  and  directness  of  utterance 
is  the  one  who  will  meet  with  the  greatest  success. 

References. 
Hervey,  Arthur. — Masters  of  French  Music. 
Hervey,  Arthur. — Music  in  the  19th  Century :   France. 
Elson,  A. — Modern  Composers  of  Europe. 

Questions. 
Which  French  composers  represent  the  older  style ;  which 
the  new? 

Give  a  sketch  of  the  works  of  Saint-Saens. 

Give  a  sketch  of  the  works  of  Massenet. 

Name  other  important  opera  composers  in  France. 


LESSON    HELPS.  489 

Who  was  the  leader  of  the  new  French  school  ?  Give  an 
account  of  his  works.    Name  some  of  his  pupils. 

Who  is  the  leading  representative  of  this  school  today 
(1905)  ?    Give  an  account  of  his  works. 

Which  is  the  most  important  work  of  Charpentier? 

In  what  lines  of  musical  work  did  Bruneau  labor  ?  Name 
some  of  his  works. 

Who  is  the  most  extreme  representative  of  the  new 
French  school? 

What  are  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  Chausson's 
works  ? 

Name  other  important  French  composers. 

What  is  the  character  of  some  of  the  works  of  the  ad- 
vanced school  of  composition? 


PlETRO  MaSCAGNI,  GiaCOMO   PucCINI. 

g.  soambati. 
Abbe  Pebosi.  Enbico  Bossi. 


LESSON  Llll. 

Musical  Regeneration  in  Italy. 

Musical  Decadence. — When  a  nation  clings  to  its  own 
musical  ideas,  and  persistently  disregards  the  growth  and 
progress  of  other  nations,  it  usually  enters  upon  a  period  of 
decay.  This  is  what  took  place  in  Italy  during  the  19th 
century,  and  the  country  that  produced  Palestrina  and  the 
Scarlattis  seemed  for  a  time  to  understand  nothing  but  the 
trivial  operatic  melodies  of  Rossini's  successors.  In  1850. 
there  were  scarcely  any  concert  halls  in  the  country,  and 
even  the  churches  were  content  with  operatic  airs  set  to 
sacred  words.  Soon  after  this,  Pinelli  tried  to  give  an  or- 
chestral concert,  with  sixty  musicians ;  and  the  box-office 
receipts  left  only  fourteen  francs  with  which  to  pay  them. 
Sgambati  produced  a  Beethoven  symphony,  but  had  to  do  it 
at  his  own  expense.  As  late  as  1879,  Saint-Saens,  who  gave 
an  organ  recital  at  Milan,  found  the  organ  scarcely  fit  for 
an  artist  to  play  upon.  In  opera,  it  was  only  the  broad 
judgment  of  Verdi  that  was  able  to  look  beyond  the  borders 
of  his  native  land,  and  his  "Aida,"  as  well  as  Boito's  "Mefis- 
tofele,"  was  the  beginning  of  a  new  order  of  things. 

Mascagni. — In  1890,  the  publisher  Sonzogno  offered  a 
prize  for  the  best  one-act  opera  submitted  to  him,  and  this 
prize  was  awarded  to  Pietro  Mascagni  (Leghorn,  Italy, 
1863),  then  an  unimportant  musical  leader  at  Cerignola. 
Mascagni  was  the  son  of  a  baker,  who  wished  him  to  study 
law,  and  locked  him  up  because  he  practiced  the  piano  in 
secret.  The  boy  was  rescued  by  his  uncle,  and  under  the 
protection  of  Count  Florestan  pursued  his  studies  at  the 
Milan  Conservatory.  The  opera  that  brought  him  such 
fame,  which  has  since  become  world-wide,  was  "Cavalleria 
Rusticana,"  or  "Rustic  Chivalry,"  based  on  a  tale  by  Verga. 
The  scene  is  a  village  square,  before  a  church.    The  heroine, 

(491) 


492  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

Santuzza,  is  forsaken  by  Turiddu,  who  carries  on  an  in- 
trigue with  Lola,  wife  of  the  carter  Alfio.  Santuzza,  in 
despair,  denounces  him  to  Alfio,  who  challenges  and  kills 
him.  The  music  is  hardly  of  the  highest  standard ;  but  it 
is  popular  and  vigorous  in  style,  and  intensely  powerful. 
The  work  is  scarcely  comparable  to  the  music-dramas,  yet 
every  number  is  animated  by  the  spirit  of  the  words,  and 
it  is  therefore  dramatically  true.  Among  the  many  favorite 
selections  from  its  score  are  the  "Siciliana"  of  Turiddu 
(sung  as  part  of  the  overture,  before  the  curtain  rises),  the 
broad  and  noble  "Regina  Coeli,"  Lola's  serenely  confident 
aria,  "My  King  of  Roses,"  and  the  jolly  "Brindisi,"  or 
drinking  chorus,  to  say  nothing  of  the  saccharine  "Inter- 
mezzo." The  power  and  vividness  of  "Rustic  Chivalry" 
made  it  an  epoch-making  work ;  but  Mascagni's  later  operas 
have  not  met  with  the  same  success.  They  include  "L'Amico 
Fritz,"  "William  Ratcliff,"  "Silvano,"  "Iris,"  "Le  Mas- 
chere,"  and  the  one-act  "Amica." 

Leoncavallo. — The  success  of  "Rustic  Chivalry"  aroused 
Ruggiero  Leoncavallo  (Naples,  Italy,  1858)  to  try  his  hand 
in  the  same  school.  His  early  opera  "Chatterton"  was  prac- 
tically a  failure,  while  his  ambitious  "Medici"  trilogy  ("I 
Medici,"  "Savonarola,"  and  "Cesare  Borgia")  met  with  no 
better  reception.  In  "I  Pagliacci,"  however,  he  produced  a 
work  of  the  new  school,  that  has  taken  its  place  beside  Mas- 
cagni's opera  as  an  example  of  the  new  realism.  The  "Pag- 
liacci" are  strolling  players.  Canio,  the  leader,  is  aroused 
to  madness  by  learning  of  the  proposed  elopement  of  his 
wife,  Nedda,  but  she  will  not  betray  her  lover's  name.  They 
enact  for  the  villagers  a  mimic  tragedy  of  love  and  jealousy, 
but  Canio  makes  it  real  by  actually  stabbing  the  faithless 
Nedda.  Her  lover  then  leaps  from  the  audience  to  save 
her,  only  to  meet  a  similar  death  at  Canio's  hands.  The 
music  to  this  play  is  of  a  higher  standard  than  Mascagni's, 
though  less  directly  popular  in  style.'  "Trilby"  and  "Zaza" 
are  later  works  of  little  importance,  while  "Roland  of 
Berlin,"  composed  by  order  for  a  libretto  by  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  aroused  only  passing  interest. 


THE   REALISTIC    SCHOOL.  493 

Puccini. — When  the  great  Verdi  retired  from  active  life 
as  a  composer,  he  named  as  his  probable  successor,  Giacomo 
Puccini  (Lucca,  Italy,  1858).  Descended  from  a  musical 
family,  Puccini  could  devote  himself  to  his  art  without 
parental  opposition,  and  he  completed  his  studies  under 
Ponchielli,  at  the  Milan  Conservatory.  His  "Le  Villi"  was 
really  the  origin  of  the  modern  one-act  plays.  "Edgar" 
resembles  "Carmen"  somewhat,  but  has  a  weak  libretto,  and 
music  that  is  not  always  effective.  "Manon  Lescaut"  is 
rather  a  succession  of  detached  scenes  than  a  single  whole, 
but  at  times  it  displays  a  mastery  of  dramatic  contrast  far 
beyond  Massenet.  "La  Boheme"  is  a  delightfully  sympa- 
thetic setting  of  Murger's  well-known  novel,  and  its  scenes 
of  rollicking  defiance  to  poverty  and  hunger  remind  one  of 
the  composer's  early  struggles.  The  note  of  haunting  sweet- 
ness that  pervades  the  score  marks  Puccini  as  a  man  of  rare 
musical  gifts.  In  "Tosca,"  the  heroine  of  that  name  loves 
the  arist,  Mario,  who  aids  a  political  refugee,  at  the  risk  of 
his  own  life.  The  governor,  Scarpia,  who  captures  him, 
loves  Tosca  also,  and  tortures  him  to  make  her  yield  to 
his  desires.  To  save  Mario,  she  consents,  but  stabs  Scar- 
pia at  the  last  moment.  But  Scarpia's  treachery  survives 
him,  for  the  pretended  execution,  which  was  to  let  Mario 
escape,  turns  out  to  be  real,  and  Tosca  takes  her  own  life 
in  despair.  The  music  shows  a  ripe  mastery  of  dramatic 
power.  The  climax  of  the  first  act,  merging  into  the  church 
service,  and  the  tragic  power  of  the  second,  well  contrasted 
with  the  strains  of  a  festival  cantata  that  float  in  through 
the  window,  are  scenes  that  win  unqualified  praise  from  all 
critics.  "Madame  Butterfly,"  on  a  Japanese  subject,  lacked 
the  necessary  delicacy,  but  the  two  preceding  works  have 
made  Puccini  the  foremost  man  in  Italian  opera  today. 

The  Realistic  School. — Many  composers  of  the  "Verismo" 
school  adopt  a  realism  that  deals  only  with  the  more  brutal 
side  of  life,  and  their  plots,  though  strong,  are  not  always 
pleasing.  Giordano's  "Andrea  Chenier"  and  "Fedora"  show 
musical  worth,  but  Spinelli's  "A  Basso  Porto,"  Coronaro's 
"Festa  a  Marina,"  and  Tasca's  "A  Santa  Lucia"  picture  some 


494  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

of  the  coarsest  phases  of  existence.  Yet  this  defect  may  be 
condoned  when  we  consider  that  the  movement  has  infused 
new  hfe  and  power  into  Italian  music.  Among  those  com- 
posers who  have  stood  somewhat  aloof  from  the  new  school, 
Franchetti  is  the  most  noteworthy.  His  operas  include 
"Cristoforo  Colombo,"  "Germania,"  and  the  later  "Figlia 
di  Jorio,"  and  he  has  written  symphonies  that  place  him 
among  the  best  of  the  later  Italian  composers. 

Perosi. — The  revival  in  sacred  music  has  been  brought 
about  wholly  by  one  man,  Don  Lorenzo  Perosi  (Tortona, 
Italy,  1872).  He  studied  faithfully,  in  spite  of  sickness — 
first  at  Milan,  then  under  the  learned  Fr.  Haberl  at  Ratisbon. 
He  became  a  conductor  at  Imola,  and  afterwards  at  Venice, 
where  he  led  his  forces  w'ith  decided  vigor.  Soon  after  this, 
he  began  to  compose  the  oratorios  that  have  made  him  so 
famous.  His  sacred  trilogy,  "The  Passion  of  Christ,"  in- 
cluded the  "Last  Supper,"  the  "Sermon  on  the  Mount,"  and 
the  "Death  of  the  Redeemer."  It  made  a  sensation  that 
reverberated  through  all  Italy,  and  caused  his  appointment 
in  the  following  year  as  honorary  master  of  the  Papal  Choir. 
He  has  been  untiring  as  a  composer,  producing  no  less  than 
fifteen  masses  and  nearly  a  dozen  oratorios.  Among  the 
latter  are  "The  Transfiguration,"  "The  Annunciation,"  "The 
Raising  of  Lazarus,"  "The  Birth  of  the  Redeemer,"  and  the 
two-part  "Moses."  He  writes  with  enthusiasm,  and  sees  the 
actual  picture  before  him  while  he  works.  His  music  does 
not  possess  the  calm  dignity  shown  by  Palestrina,  but  its 
semi-popular  style  is  well  adapted  to  his  hearers,  and  may 
lead  the  way  to  something  better. 

Sg^mbati. — The  leading  position  among  Italy's  new  sym- 
phonic composers  belongs  to  Giovanni  Sgambati  (Rome, 
Italy,  1843).  Like  many  musicians,  he  was  at  first  destined 
for  a  lawyer's  career,  but  began  his  musical  studies  in  time 
to  become  known  as  a  boy-prodigy.  He  settled  in  Rome, 
and  soon  grew  famous  as  a  pianist.  He  played  Beethoven, 
Schumann  and  Chopin,  and  did  much  to  introduce  their 
works  into  Italy.  He  planned  a  trip  to  Germany,  but  when 
Liszt  came  to  Rome  he  remained  there  to  study  under  that 


FOLLOWERS   OF   GERMAN    IDEAS.  495 

great  master.  At  this  time  his  earlier  compositions,  mostly 
chamber  works,  brought  him  into  notice  in  a  new  liekl. 
These  quartets  and  quintets  were  followed  by  a  festival 
overture,  a  piano  concerto,  and  three  symphonies  in  succes- 
sion. His  compositions  are  somewhat  lacking  in  spontaneity, 
but  they  display  great  learning,  and  undeniable  skill.  His 
works  show  the  influence  of  Liszt  and  Berlioz,  mingled  with 
the  stricter  style  of  the  old  Italian  contrapuntal  writers. 

Other  Orchestral  Composers. — With  Sgambati,  Martucci 
also  deserves  mention  in  the  instrumental  field.  He  became 
identified  with  the  artistic  life  of  Naples,  where  he  fought  a 
similar  fight  for  the  cause  of  good  music.  Among  several 
others,  Del  Valle  de  Paz  is  noted  for  his  valuable  educational 
work  in  Florence,  no  less  than  for  his  compositions.  Busoni, 
so  well  known  as  a  pianist,  has  also  tried  his  hand  at  orches- 
tral writing  in  the  most  extreme  modern  vein.  Eugenio  di 
Pirani  is  another  composer  who  has  identified  himself  with 
the  German  instrumental  school.  The  literary  champion 
of  the  new  order  of  things  has  been  Luigi  Torchi,  whose 
work  in  the  magazines  deserves  the  highest  praise. 

Bossi. — The  most  prominent  figure  among  the  younger 
devotees  of  the  German  style  is  Marco  Enrico  Bossi  (Salo, 
Italy,  1861).  He  studied  organ  at  first,  and  for  ten  years 
held  the  post  of  organist  in  the  Como  Cathedral.  Four 
years  of  teaching  at  Naples  were  followed  by  similar  work 
in  Venice,  where  he  gained  deserved  prominence.  His  com- 
positions show  great  originality,  and  include  many  diflferent 
forms.  An  early  overture  was  given  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
in  London,  which  he  visited  during  a  piano  tour.  The  one- 
act  opera  "Paquita"  was  followed  by  ''L'Angelo  della  Notte" 
and  "11  Veggento,"  also  a  large  work  for  the  Milan  Exposi- 
tion of  1905.  He  has  composed  many  masses,  and  the 
oratorio  "Christus."  A  more  recent  triumph  is  "Paradise 
Lost,"  with  Milton's  words — a  work  suggested  by  Mme. 
Rubinstein.  His  organ  concerto  won  a  decided  success  at 
the  Chicago  Fair,  and  his  symphonic  poem,  *T1  Cieco,"  has 
been  well  received.  He  aims  to  blend  the  old  polyphonic 
style  with  the  rich  instrumentation  of  modern  Germany. 


496  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Bnongiorno. — Among  the  adherents  of  German  standards, 
Buongiorno  (Bonito,  Italy,  1864)  is  one  who  has  devoted 
himself  to  opera.  Studying  at  the  Naples  Conservatory,  he 
became  leader  of  an  operetta  troupe,  for  which  he  wrote 
many  popular  works.  His  first  great  opera  was  "Das  Mad- 
chenherz"  (II  Cuor  delle  Fanciulle),  which  treats  with  ad- 
mirable delicacy  the  love-story  of  Alba  and  Marino.  She 
grows  to  be  court  singer,  and  defeats  an  older  rival,  but  am- 
bition makes  her  careless  of  love.  Marino  becomes  a  priest, 
and  only  when  Alba  is  old  and  forsaken  does  his  consolation 
show  her  what  she  has  missed.  The  music  displays  much 
emotional  beauty,  and  the  "play  within  the  play,"  at  the 
ducal  court,  allows  the  composer  to  imitate  Bach,  Handel, 
and  other  old  masters  with  exquisite  humor.  "Michelangelo 
and  Rolla"  is  a  one-act  play,  again  uniting  a  subject  of  real 
poetic  worth  with  beautiful  music.  These  two  operas  are 
far  removed  from  the  crudities  of  the  "Verismo"  school. 

"Wolf-Ferrari. — A  composer  who  may  fitly  follow  German 
ideals  is  Ermanno  Wolf -Ferrari,  son  of  a  German  father 
and  an  Italian  mother.  Hie  "Cenerentola"  (Cinderella)  has 
a  rather  tedious  first  act,  but  the  second  act  shows  all  the 
appealing  beauty  and  sympathetic  feeling  that  mark  the  new 
romanticism.  "Le  Donne  Curiose"  is  an  excellent  example 
of  sparkling  comedy,  and  has  won  much  success  in  Ger- 
many. It  treats  of  the  misadventures  of  some  women,  who 
try  to  investigate  a  mysterious  club  formed  by  their  hus- 
bands. A  work  in  a  different  vein  is  the  composer's  "Vita 
Nuova,"  a  fresh  and  inspired  setting  of  sonnets  and  other 
selections  from  Dante's  great  work. 

Music  in  Italy. — It  is  difficult  for  one  nation  to  adopt  the 
musical  expression  of  another,  but  this  is  practically  what 
Italy  has  done.  Verdi  first  gave  up  the  trivial  melodies  so 
dear  to  the  Italian  populace,  and  adopted  a  worthier  style. 
Like  Boito,  he  denied  being  influenced  by  Wagner,  but  his 
works  show  that  he  felt  the  force  of  the  German  master's 
orchestral  power.  The  realistic  school  of  opera  has  brought 
into  Italian  music  a  vividness  and  power  that  are  not  sur- 
passed by  any  other  nation,  while  a  still  later  generation 


LESSON    HELPS.  497 

has  striven  to  cast  off  the  crudities  of  this  school  and  pro- 
duce works  of  real  orchestral  value.  Italy  has  already  done 
much,  and  the  progress  of  the  last  few  decades  seems  to 
predict  a  bright  future  for  her  music. 

Music  in  Spain. — During  the  last  half-century,  Spain,  too, 
has  developed  some  native  composers.  One  of  the  best  is 
Isaac  Albeniz  (d.  1910),  whose  "Pepita  Ximenes"  is  de- 
lightful comedy  of  love  and  intrigue.  His  Zarzuelas  also 
have  met  with  success.  Felipe  Pedrell,  well  known  in  Eu- 
ropean journalism,  has  written  an  ambitious  trilogy  on 
subjects  illustrating  the  national  motto,  "Patria,  Fides, 
Amor."  Larrocha,  Vives,  De  Lara,  and  Antonio  Noguerra 
are  also  worthy  of  mention.  The  Zarzuela  is  the  peculiar 
Spanish  form  of  light  opera,  resembling  the  Italian  opera 
buffa,  but  possessing  more  brilliance  and  delicacy. 
References. 

Streatfeild,  R.  A. — Masters  of  Italian  Music. 
Elson,  Arthur. — Modern  Composers  of  Europe. 


Questions. 

What  circumstances  contributed  to  Italy's  musical  deca- 
dence ? 

Give  an  account  of  "Cavalleria  Rusticana"  and  how  it 
came  to  be  written. 

What  composer  was  influenced  by  the  success  of  Mas- 
cagni?    Describe  his  works. 

Who  wrote  "La  Boheme"  ?  Tell  about  his  education  and 
his  works. 

What  composers  are  prominent  in  the  "Realistic"  school 
in  Italy? 

Give  an  account  of  the  work  of  Perosi  in  Oratorio. 

Give  an  account  of  the  works  of  Sgambati  and  other  com- 
posers for  the  orchestra. 

What  composers  follow  German  methods  ?  Describe  their 
works. 

Tell  something  about  music  in  Spain. 


C.  H.  H.  Parky.  A.  C.  Mackenzie. 

Edward  Eloar. 
S.  Colebidqe-Tayixjr-  Gbanviixe  Bantock. 


LESSON  LIV. 

England  and  the  Netherlands. 

Music  in  England. — In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  much-used 
art  of  Counterpoint  was  developed  by  the  people  of  Kus:;- 
land  and  the  Netherlands.  In  the  Elizabethan  age,  the  music 
of  England  was  scarcely  less  important  than  her  literature. 
Under  Charles  II,  she  could  boast  of  Henry  Purcell,  one  of 
the  few  great  names  in  music.  But  in  the  19th  century  her 
musical  glory  had  faded,  and  sentimental  songs  and  pop- 
ular ballad-operas  seemed  all  that  she  could  produce.  Her 
musical  leaders  went  bravely  to  work,  importing  such  com- 
posers as  Mendelssohn  and  Wagner,  and  building  up  great 
music  schools.  There  was,  however,  no  high  standard  of 
taste  in  the  country,  so  the  task  proceeded  slowly.  A  race 
that  is  gifted  with  real  love  of  music,  and  possesses  worthy 
Folk-songs,  can  easily  develop  great  composers ;  but  Eng- 
land, like  the  United  States,  is  too  commercial  for  the  best 
results.  Dvorak  once  said  of  the  English  people :  "They  do 
not  love  music ;    they  respect  it." 

Stanford. — For  some  years,  a  group  of  five  men  were 
the  advance  guard  of  England's  development.  While  none 
of  them  showed  any  remarkable  inspiration,  their  work 
was  learned  and  thorough,  and  prepared  the  way  for  men 
of  more  originality.  The  foremost  of  them  was  Charles 
Villiers  Stanford  (Dublin,  Ireland,  1852).  After^  study- 
ing under  Reinecke  and  Kiel,  he  became  organist  and  con- 
ductor at  Cambridge  University.  His  works  include  five 
symphonies  (among  them  the  "Irish"),  two  overtures,  an 
"Irish  Rhapsody,"  a  piano  concerto,  two  oratorios,  and 
several  cantatas;  but  he  is  best  known  by  his  operas.  Of 
these,  "Shamus  O'Brien"  is  most  popular,  because  of  its 
subject,  while  "Much  Ado  about  Nothing"   shows  much 

(499) 


500  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

grace  and  elegance.  "The  Canterbury  Pilgrims"  aims  to 
picture  old  England,  as  the  "Aleistersinger"  did  old  Ger- 
many. Stanford's  work  is  always  carefully  planned,  but 
not  deeply  inspired. 

Parry. — Charles  Hubert  Hastings  Parry  (Bournemouth, 
England,  1848)  was  Professor  of  Music  at  Oxford  Univer- 
sity, 1900- 1908.  He  has  composed  four  symphonies  and  two 
overtures,  the  "Tragic''  and  "Guillem  de  Cabestaneh,"  but 
his  most  important  work  has  been  in  the  field  of  oratorio. 
His  sacred  works  include  "Judith,"  "De  Profundis,"  "Job," 
and  "King  Saul,"  also  a  great  Magnificat  and  Te  Deum. 
These,  too,  show  excess  of  erudition,  and  are  somewhat 
academic  in  character;  but  in  all  his  choral  work  Parry 
displays  a  breadth  and  power  that  deserve  high  praise.  His 
incidental  music  to  the  "Frogs"  and  the  "Birds"  of  Aris- 
tophanes is  also  worthy  of  mention.  His  contributions  to 
musical  literature  are  very  important. 

Other  Musical  Leaders. — Alexander  Campbell  Mackenzie 
(Edinburgh,  Scotland,  1847)  became  teacher  and  conduc- 
tor in  his  native  city,  afterwards  joining  the  University 
forces.  His  "Colomba,"  an  early  opera,  displays  much  real 
dramatic  worth;  more,  in  fact,  than  his  later  productions. 
Among  his  other  works  are  two  oratorios,  "The  Rose  of 
Sharon"  and  "Bethlehem,"  while  his  entr'actes  for  "Man- 
fred" and  his  powerful  "Coriolanus"  music  also  deserve 
notice.  Frederic  Hymen  Cowen  (Kingston,  Jamaica,  1852) 
studied  with  Reinecke,  Moscheles,  and  Kiel,  and  conducted 
in  many  cities,  including  Melbourne,  Australia.  He  has 
written  two  oratorios,  "Ruth"  and  "The  Deluge,"  four 
operas,  including  "Pauline"  and  "Harold,"  and  several  can- 
tatas, of  which  "The  Sleeping  Beauty"  and  "The  Water 
Lily"  are  delightfully  poetic.  But  his  six  symphonies  are 
his  most  valuable  works,  the  "Scandinavian,"  "Idyllic,"  and 
"Welsh"  ranking  in  the  order  named.  Arthnr  Goring 
Thomas  (Eastbourne,  England,  1850 — London,  1892)  de- 
voted himself  to  the  lighter  style  of  romantic  music,  in 
which  his  opera  "Esmeralda"  and  his  posthumous  cantata 
"The  Swan  and  the  Skylark"  met  with  the  most  success. 


ELGAR.  501 

With  these  five  should  be  classed  Sir  J.  Frederick  Bridge, 
often  called  in  jest  "The  Westminster  Bridge"  because  of 
his  post  as  organist  in  Westminster  Abbey.  His  works  in- 
clude many  cantatas,  oratorios,  and  lesser  sacred  pieces. 
His  teaching  has  been  made  delightful  by  his  inimitable 
humor,  which  often  appears  in  his  compositions  also.  Other 
men  of  this  school  are  Walter  Cecil  Macfarren,  Sir  Walter 
Parratt,  and  Charles  Harford  Lloyd,  while  the  excellent  work 
of  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan  in  light  opera  must  not  be  forgotten. 

Elgar. — In  Edward  William  Elgar  (Broadheath,  Eng- 
land, 1857)  we  find  a  man  who  is  possessed  of  real  origi- 
nality, and  takes  rank  with  the  world's  great  composers. 
This  is  all  the  more  remarkable  when  we  consider  that  he 
is  almost  wholly  self-taught.  Son  of  an  organist,  he  soon 
grew  familiar  with  the  instrument,  and  gained  further 
musical  experience  by  playing  in  a  theatre  orchestra  at 
Worcester.  Too  poor  to  go  to  Germany,  he  lived  by  teach- 
ing violin  at  first.  He  went  through  various  books  on 
harmony  and  orchestration,  gaining  much  from  Mozart's 
"Thorough-Bass  School,"  and  Parry's  articles  in  Grove's 
dictionary.  He  ruled  a  score  for  the  same  number  of  bars 
and  instruments  as  in  Mozart's  G-minor  symphony,  and 
wrote  a  work  in  this  form — an  exercise  which  he  considers 
of  the  utmost  value.  When  he  obtained  a  new  orchestral 
work,  he  would  go  into  the  fields  to  study  it. 

His  Works.  —  Elgar  first  won  attention  by  his  cantata 
"The  Black  Knight,"  given  at  a  Worcester  festival.  Its 
success  caused  him  to  continue  with  "The  Light  of  Life" 
and  "King  Olaf,"  the  latter  displaying  much  direct  power 
and  orchestral  mastery.  His  "Variations,"  which  won  a 
London  triumph,  possess  great  intrinsic  worth ;  but  each 
one  is  intended  to  portray  some  friend  of  the  composer's, 
and  the  work  thus  has  an  added  meaning  for  his  acquaint- 
ances. "The  Dream  of  Gerontius,"  a  setting  of  Cardinal 
Newman's  sacred  poem,  met  with  remarkable  favor.  It  is 
not  altogether  unified  in  eflfect,  but  contains  many  passages 
of  compelling  beauty  and  sublimity.  It  has  been  heard  in 
many  countries,  and  one  German  writer  considers  it  the 


502  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

greatest  sacred  work  of  the  last  century,  except  the 
"Requiem"  of  Brahms.  "The  Apostles,"  a  later  oratorio, 
is  the  first  part  of  a  proposed  trilogy.  It  displays  similar 
excellence,  but  at  times  is  too  mystic  and  psychological  in 
effect.  Other  works  by  Elgar  are  three  overtures :  the  at- 
tractive "Froissart,"  the  broadly-popular  "Cockaigne"  (typ- 
ical of  London),  and  the  more  recent  "In  the  South."  The 
music  to  "Diarmid  and  Crania"  is  also  worth  mention,  while 
the  five  songs,  entitled,  "Sea  Pictures,"  show  remarkable 
breadth  and  nobility. 

Coleridge-Taylor. — England  boasts  the  first  great  negro 
composer  in  Samuel  Coleridge-Taylor  (London.  England, 
1875).  Son  of  an  educated  African  father  and  a  white 
mother,  he  began  violin  lessons  at  six.  At  a  more  mature 
age,  he  studied  piano  with  Ashton  and  composition  with 
Stanford.  His  early  works  included  a  number  of  anthems, 
some  chamber-music,  and  a  symphony  in  A-minor.  For 
his  beloved  violin  he  wrote  the  passionate  "Southern  Love- 
Songs"  and  "African  Romances,"  also  the  "Hiawatha" 
sketches.  In  1898,  he  became  world-famous  by  his  cantata 
"Hiawatha's  Wedding-Feast,"  which  he  followed  with  "The 
Death  of  Minnehaha"  and  "Hiawatha's  Departure."  These 
display  a  strength  and  profusion  of  passion  that  sway  all 
hearers,  and  the  glowing  richness  of  the  instrumentation 
forms  an  appropriate  frame  for  Longfellow's  picture.  Later 
vocal  works  are  "The  Atonement"  and  "The  Blind  Girl  of 
Castel-Cuille."  His  other  compositions  include  an  orchestral 
ballade  with  violin,  an  Idyll,  a  Solemn  Prelude,  the  music  to 
"Herod,"  and  four  waltzes.  All  show  breadth  of  treatment, 
and  effects  of  real  beauty  attained  by  simple  means. 

Bantock. — Some  younger  composers  have  headed  a  move- 
ment for  greater  originality,  under  the  lead  of  Granville 
Bantock  (London,  England,  1868).  His  one-act  operas 
"Caedmar"  and  "The  Pearl  of  Iran"  show  much  warmth  of 
color,  and  his  musical  ideas  are  always  worthy  of  the  great 
literary  conceptions  in  which  he  delights.  His  two  over- 
tures, "Eugene  Aram"  and  "Saul,"  the  suite  of  "Russian 
Scenes,"  and  the  more  recent  rhapsody,  "The  Time  Spirit," 


THE   BELGIAN    SCHOOL.  503 

are  the  work  of  a  truly  musical  nature.  His  greatest  effort, 
however,  is  a  set  of  twenty-four  symphonic  poems,  illus- 
trating Southey's  "Curse  of  Kehama." 

Other  Composers. — In  the  new  movement  are  William 
Wallace,  Erskine  Allon,  Reginald  Steggall,  Stanley  Hawley, 
and  Arthur  Hinton.  Clarence  Lucas  and  Cyril  Scott  are 
two  other  young  men  of  prominence. 

Edward  German  is  a  composer  of  remarkable  gifts,  for  he 
attains  effects  of  the  utmost  grace  and  musical  beauty  by 
the  simplest  diatonic  themes.  His  "Rival  Poets"  and  "Mer- 
rie  England"  are  worthy  examples  of  light  opera,  while 
the  "English  Fantasia,"  the  symphonic  poem  "Hamlet,"  the 
suite  "The  Seasons,"  and  the  "Welsh  Rhapsody"  are  all 
works  of  pleasing  freshness  and  originality.  German  has 
also  made  a  name  in  the  special  field  of  incidental  music, 
his  settings  including  "Romeo  and  Juliet,"  "As  You  Like 
It,"  "Much  Ado  about  Nothing,"  "The  Tempest,"  and  sev- 
eral other  plays.  In  a  period  when  many  composers  are 
losing  themselves  in  the  intricacies  of  the  modern  orches- 
tral style,  the  clear  simplicity  of  German's  compositions  is 
an  example  of  the  utmost  value. 

The  Belgian  School:  Benoit. — The  new  school  of  Bel- 
gium, fostered  by  the  Brussels  Conservatory,  owes  its 
origin  chiefly  to  Peter  Benoit  (Harlebeke,  Flanders,  1834 
— ^Antwerp,  1901),  who  broadened  its  influence  by  his  teach- 
ing at  the  Flemish  School  of  Music,  in  Antwerp,  His  early 
opera,  "Het  Dorp  in  t'Gebergte"  (The  Village  in  the  Moun- 
tains), showed  delightful  local  color.  A  second  opera,  a 
mass,  a  concerto,  and  a  choral  symphony  increased  his  fame, 
but  he  is  identified  chiefly  with  the  cantata.  His  great 
works  in  this  field  include  "Oorlog"  (War),  "Lucifer," 
"De  Schelde,"  "De  Rhyn,"  the  Rubens  cantata,  and  "Prom- 
ethee."  They  are  modern  in  effect,  and  show  breadth  of 
conception  and  real  inspiration,  united  with  ripe  technical 
mastery.  They  have  been  described  as  great  decorative 
pictures  in  tone,  suggesting  vistas  of  grand  palaces,  armies 
in  battle  array,  rich  fields  of  grain,  mystic  visions  of  the 
spirit  world,  or  gorgeous  triumphal  marches. 


504  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Gilson. — Paul  Gilson  (Brussels,  Belgium,  1865)  has  writ- 
ten for  orchestra  a  Dramatic  Overture,  a  Festival  Overture, 
a  Canadian  and  an  Irish  Fantasy,  half  a  dozen  suites,  the 
"Bucolics"  of  Virgil,  and  other  lesser  works.  But  his  best- 
known  composition  is  the  set  of  symphonic  sketches  entitled, 
"La  Mer."  This  illustrates  a  poem  of  Levis,  frequently 
read  before  the  performance.  The  different  movements 
depict  sunrise  at  sea,  and  the  many-colored  splendors  of 
dawn;  the  rollicking  songs  and  lively  dances  of  the  sea- 
man ;  a  love-duet  and  parting  between  a  sailor  and  his 
sweetheart ;  and  a  fatal  tempest,  in  which  the  themes  of  the 
sailors'  choruses  are  introduced  in  mocking  irony  as  the  ship 
goes  down.  Through  it  all  runs  a  vein  of  poetic  fancy,  well 
suggesting  the  beauty  and  mystery  of  the  sea.  The  oratorio 
"Francesca  da  Rimini"  is  another  strong  work,  the  best  of 
Gilson's  productions  in  that  form. 

Lekeu.  —  Guillaume  Lekeu  (Verviers,  Belgium,  1870- 
1894)  was  a  composer  whose  early  death  cut  short  a  career 
of  great  promise.  His  chief  studies  were  pursued  in  Paris, 
where  he  came  under  the  elevating  influence  of  Franck. 
The  subtle  delicacy  of  his  harmonic  effects  is  a  result  of 
this  teaching,  and  Lekeu  seems  like  a  member  of  the  French 
school  who  strayed  across  the  border  by  mistake.  His 
early  cantata  "Andromede,"  and  his  Fantasie  on  popular 
Angevin  airs,  gained  him  some  notice.  His  works  include 
two  Symphonic  Studies,  an  attractive  "Poeme"  for  violin 
and  orchestra,  and  an  exquisite  Adagio  for  violin,  'cello, 
and  strings.  His  greatest  vocal  composition  is  the  "Chant 
Lyrique,"  for  chorus  and  orchestra,  but  he  has  produced 
many  songs  of  lofty  melodic  style.  His  music  is  marked 
by  great  originality  and  fertility  of  invention,  but  tinged 
with  a  spirit  of  melancholy  and  gloom. 

Other  Composers. — Edgar  Tinel  (Sinay,  Flanders,  1854) 
is  another  pupil  of  the  Brussels  Conservatory,  where  he 
studied  with  Fetis.  His  great  work  is  the  three-part  ora- 
torio "Franciscus,"  treating  the  story  of  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi.  Other  works  are  "Sainte  Godelive"  and  the  music 
to  "Polyeucte." 


MUSIC    IN    HOLLAND.  505 

Jan  Blockx  (Antwerp,  Belgium,  185 1)  is  the  most  pop- 
ular opera  composer  of  his  country.  His  greatest  success 
is  the  "Herbergsprinses"  (Princess  of  the  Inn),  a  work  with 
a  strong  dramatic  plot  and  music  of  remarkable  freshness 
and  vigor.  "Thyl  Uylenspiegel,"  in  Blockx's  opera  of  that 
name,  is  no  longer  the  graceless  rogue  of  the  old  German 
story,  but  a  popular  hero  who  rescues  Maestricht  from  the 
Spaniards.  Other  operas  of  this  composer  are  "The  Bride 
of  the  Sea,"  and  "Maitre  Martin,"  an  earHer  work.  Other 
composers  prominent  in  the  new  movement  are  Keurvels, 
Wambach,  Mortelmans,  Vleeshouwer,  and  Mathieu.  The 
first  place  among  the  women  is  occupied  by  Juliette  Folville, 
the  young  violinist,  who  has  written  the  opera  "Atala,"  a 
march,  parts  of  a  symphony,  and  many  smaller  works. 

Music  in  Holland. — Richard  Hoi  was  for  many  years  the 
Nestor  of  the  Dutch  composers.  His  fame  was  assured  by 
the  patriotic  hymn,  "Comme  je  t'aime,  O  mon  pays,"  and 
his  long  career  of  activity  was  of  great  service  to  the  cause 
of  music  in  Holland.  He  was  a  prolific  composer,  and  an 
excellent  critic  and  journalist.  Julius  Roentgen,  who  studied 
under  Reinecke  and  Lachner,  was  better  known  as  pianist 
than  as  composer,  but  produced  an  excellent  concerto,  also 
"Das  Gebet,"  for  chorus  and  orchestra,  and  other  works. 
The  best  of  the  younger  men  are  Bernard  Zweers  and 
Alphonse  Diepenbrock,  while  others  deserving  mention  are 
Van  t'Kruys,  Gottfried  Mann,  Dirk  Schaefer,  and  the 
Brandt-Buys  brothers.  Among  the  women-composers, 
Catherine  van  Rennes  and  Hendrika  van  Tussen-Broek 
have  done  excellently  in  small  forms,  while  Cornelia  van 
Oosterzee  attempts  ambitious  orchestral  work,  and  Cora 
Dopper  has  entered  the  field  of  opera.  Amsterdam  has  be- 
come a  great  musical  centre,  and  Holland,  no  less  than  Bel- 
gium, is  reaping  the  result  of  the  widespread  educational 
movement. 

References. 

Maitland,  J.  A.  Fuller. — Music  in  the  19th  Century; 
England. 

Willeby,  Charles. — Masters  of  English  Music. 


506  the  history  of  music. 

Questions. 

What  obstacles  have  hindered  the  EngHsh  in  developing 
composition  ? 

Tell  about  the  work  of  Stanford. 

Tell  about  the  work  of  Parry. 

Name  other  important  English  composers. 

Give  an  account  of  Elgar  and  his  works. 

What  characteristics  arc  strong  in  the  works  of  Coleridge- 
Taylor  ? 

Name  other  prominent  composers  of  the  new  English 
school. 

Give  an  account  of  the  work  of  Benoit,  of  Gilson,  Lekeu, 
and  other  Belgian  composers. 

Who  composed  the  most  popular  Belgian  opera?  Tell 
about  other  works  by  this  composer. 

Name  some  leading  composers  of  Holland. 


LESSON  LV. 

National  Schools:    Bohemia  and  Scandinavia. 

The  Influence  of  Folk-Mnsic. — Some  races  are  endowed 
with  a  better  musical  taste  than  others.  Among  these  fa- 
vored peoples  the  Folk-song,  the  music  that  appeals  directly 
to  the  popular  heart,  needs  only  the  touch  of  a  gifted  com- 
poser to  fashion  it  into  a  great  national  school.  In  the  case 
of  England  and  Belgium,  we  have  seen  that  even  the  most 
thorough  musical  education  cannot  wholly  atone  for  a  lack 
of  real  public  taste  in  music.  Scotland,  possessing  a  wealth 
of  beautiful  Folk-songs,  has  not  yet  given  birth  to  a  com- 
poser who  can  employ  its  style  in  larger  forms.  But  in 
Bohemia  and  the  countries  of  Northern  Europe,  the  Folk- 
music  has  not  only  been  worthy  in  itself,  but  has  been  prop- 
erly developed  and  amplified  by  gifted  composers. 

Smetana. — Frantisek  Skroup  (1801-1862)  composed  many 
popular  Bohemian  Volkslieder,  and  wrote  the  first  national 
opera,  but  the  real  founder  of  the  Bohemian  school  was 
Bedrich,  or  Friedrich,  Smetana  (Lei to  mischl,  Bohemia, 
1824 — Prague,  1884).  Parental  opposition  could  not  pre- 
vent his  studying  music,  and  we  find  him  at  Prague,  under 
Proksh,  and,  later  on,  taking  lessons  of  Schumann.  That 
master  recommended  a  course  with  Mendelssohn,  but  as  the 
pupil  was  too  poor,  he  changed  his  advice  and  suggested  a 
study  of  Bach.  Smetana  became  an  ardent  admirer  of  Liszt, 
at  whose  house  his  own  career  was  decided.  Hearing  Her- 
beck  remark,  while  there,  that  the  Czechs  were  merely  re- 
productive, he  made  a  solemn  resolution  to  devote  his  life 
to  the  building  up  of  a  national  school  of  music  in  Bohemia. 

His  Works. — While  conductor  at  Gothenburg,  Sweden, 
he  produced  three  worthy  symphonic  poems :  "Richard  III," 
"Wallenstein's  Camp,"  and  "Hakon  Jarl."     On  his  return, 

(507) 


508  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

he  wrote  "The  Brandenburgers  in  Bohemia,"  the  first  of  the 
eight  operas  that  have  made  him  so  famous  in  his  native 
land.  This  was  Wagnerian  in  style,  and  at  once  the  critics 
assailed  him  fiercely  for  trying  to  bring  Bohemia  under  the 
musical  domination  of  Germany.  To  show  that  he  could 
write  in  a  more  popular  vein,  Smetana  produced  a  second 
opera,  "Prodana  Nevesta,"  (The  Bartered  Bride),  which 
proved  a  marvel  of  musical  grace  and  delicacy,  and  was 
enough  in  itself  to  establish  the  reputation  of  any  com- 
poser. "Dalibor"  is  a  dramatic  work  in  serious  vein,  while 
"Libuse''  is  based  on  a  national  subject.  "The  Two  Wid- 
ows" and  "The  Kiss"  are  light  operas  of  marked  success, 
the  latter  being  often  cited  as  a  perfect  model  for  this 
style.  "The  Secret"  is  in  the  same  vein,  while  "The  Devil's 
Wall"  is  again  on  a  national  legend.  Other  notable  works 
are  the  string  quartet  "Aus  Meinem  Leben,"  and  the  "Car- 
nival of  Prague" ;  but  Smetana's  greatest  orchestral  work 
is  the  set  of  six  symphonic  poems  entitled  "Ma  Vlast"  (My 
Fatherland).  These  depict  "Vysehrad,"  a  historic  fortress; 
"Vltava,"  the  river  Moldau;  "Sarka,"  a  mythical  Amazon; 
"Bohemia's  Groves  and  Meadows,"  "Tabor,"  the  Hussite 
camp ;  and  "Blanik,"  the  magic  mountain  where  the  war- 
riors sleep.  Smetana's  music  shows  an  inspiration  and 
depth  of  feeHng  that  make  him  rank  with  the  world's  great 
composers,  and  his  struggles  against  poverty  and  disease 
form  a  story  of  the  utmost  pathos. 

Dvorak. — The  greatest  of  Smetana's  pupils  was  Antonin 
Dvorak  ( Miihlhausen,  Bohemia,  1841 — Prague,  1904).  Son 
of  a  butcher,  he  persuaded  the  village  schoolmaster  to  give 
him  lessons.  He  began  composition  at  Zlonitz,  and  soon 
sent  home  a  polka  to  surprise  his  family;  and  as  he  had 
written  it  without  considering  the  transposing  instruments, 
thus  causing  three  different  keys  to  sound  together,  the 
resulting  discords  certainly  accomplished  that  purpose. 
After  further  study  at  Prague,  he  was  able  to  gain  a 
Gorvernment  pension,  and  to  interest  such  men  as  Hanslick 
and  Brahms.  He  spent  his  time  in  "hard  study,  occasional 
composition,  much  revision,  a  great  deal  of  thinking,  and 


Antonin  Dvorak. 
Edvabd  Gbieo. 


Christian  Sindinq. 
Fbiedkich  Smetana. 


5IO  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

little  eating."  Being  asked  what  teacher  helped  him  most, 
he  replied:  "I  studied  with  God,  the  birds,  the  trees,  the 
rivers,  myself." 

His  Works. — Dvorak's  many  operas,  including  "Wanda," 
"Dimitri,"  "Armida,"  and  others,  have  been  surpassed  in 
importance  by  his  orchestral  works.  His  "Stabat  Mater" 
and  the  cantata  "The  Spectre's  Bride"  are  important  vocal 
compositions.  His  overtures  include  such  well-known  ex- 
amples as  the  "Husitzka,"  "Mein  Heim,"  "Othello,"  "In 
der  Natur,"  and  the  "Carneval."  Other  instrumental  works 
are  the  famous  "Slavic  Dances,"  the  Slavonic  Rhapsodies, 
the  "Scherzo  Capriccioso,"  three  Ballades,  and  a  "Hero 
Song."  Before  coming  to  New  York,  in  1892,  he  had  writ- 
ten four  great  symphonies ;  but  the  fifth,  "Aus  der  Neuen 
Welt,"  is  of  the  greatest  interest  to  Americans,  since 
Dvorak  here  adopted  the  plantation  style  in  his  themes,  to 
show  what  could  be  done  in  building  up  an  American 
school  of  music.  He  was  eminently  successful  in  handling 
his  material,  and  he  produced  a  greater  and  more  truly 
national  work  than  any  resident  composer  has  yet  done.  In 
general,  Dvorak's  style  is  more  cosmopolitan  than  that  of 
Smetana,  and  his  faculty  of  melodic  invention  makes  his 
works  attractive.  He  enriched  the  symphony  by  two 
Bohemian  dance-movements — the  Dumka,  and  the  Furiant. 

Other  Bohemians. — Zdenek  Fibich,  though  little  known 
outside  of  his  own  country,  was  another  famous  opera- 
composer.  He  devoted  some  efforts  to  melodrama  also, 
"Hippodamia"  being  his  chief  work  in  this  field.  He  pub- 
lished two  symphonies  and  several  symphonic  poems,  the 
latter  showing  the  influence  of  Liszt.  Reznicek,  who  has  re- 
cently identified  himself  with  the  musical  life  of  Germany, 
has  produced  five  operas,  of  which  the  sparkling  comedy 
"Bonna  Diana"  and  the  later  "Till  Eulenspiegel"  are  the 
best.  Josef  Suk,  son-in-law  of  Dvorak,  has  composed  some 
attractive  instrumental  music,  while  N^pravnik,  of  an  earlier 
generation,  won  operatic  successes  in  St.  Petersburg.  Hun- 
gary, too,  has  a  national  school  of  opera,  founded  by  Franz 
Erkel.    This  school  is  carried  on  by  such  men  as  Alexander 


GRIEG.  511 

Erkel,  the  Doppler  brothers,  Mihalovitch,  Zichy,  and  Hubay, 
while  Dohnanyi  is  better  known  as  pianist  than  as  composer. 
Poland  is  represented  by  Paderewski,  while  Soltys  has  won 
renown  in  symphony,  and  Stalkowsky  in  opera. 

Norwegian  Music. — Norway  is  preeminently  a  land  of 
song.  Its  sombre  fiords,  dark  forests,  and  smiling  meadows 
have  at  all  times  inspired  a  school  of  Folk-music  whose 
plaintive  sweetness  exerts  the  utmost  charm  on  the  musical 
auditor.  In  Edvard  Hagerup  Grieg  (Bergen,  1 843-1907) 
we  find  a  composer  of  wonderful  melodic  gifts  and  expres- 
sive power,  who  has  preserved  admirably  the  flavor  of  the 
local  Folk-songs  and  dances.  Grieg  owed  much  to  the 
wise  training  of  his  mother,  a  woman  of  rare  gifts.  At 
Ole  Bull's  advice,  he  took  a  course  at  Leipzig,  after  which 
he  studied  further  with  Gade,  at  Copenhagen.  There  he 
met  Rikard  Noordraak,  who  first  aroused  his  enthusiasm 
for  the  songs  and  legends  of  his  native  land. 

Grieg's  Works. — Grieg's  genius  was  essentially  lyric  and 
melodic,  but  this  in  no  way  detracts  from  the  greatness  of 
his  orchestral  works.  The  "Autumn"  overture  is  clear  and 
beautiful,  with  the  simplicity  of  strength,  not  of  weakness. 
The  "Norwegian  Dances"  mark  the  beginning  of  the  na- 
tional style  that  is  carried  out  in  the  melodrama  "Bergliot," 
the  two  "Peer  Gynt"  suites,  and  "Sigurd  Jorsalfer."  The 
piano  concerto,  somewhat  in  the  style  of  Schumann,  is  one 
of  Grieg's  best  works,  and  shows  the  utmost  perfection  of 
melodic  and  harmonic  architecture.  The  "Elegiac  Mel- 
odies," the  "Norwegian  Themes,"  and  the  "Holberg  Suite," 
all  for  strings,  are  further  examples  of  his  rich  fulness  of 
romantic  utterance.  His  choral  and  chamber  works  show 
the  same  sympathetic  treatment,  while  his  piano  works  and 
songs  include  some  of  the  most  exquisite  gems  in  the  entire 
musical  repertoire.  His  works  show  endless  melodic  in- 
vention, great  power  of  expression,  and  a  warmth  of  tender 
sentimept  that  seems  never  to  lose  its  charm. 

Christian  Binding  (Kongsberg,  Norway,  1856)  studied  at 
Leipzig  also,  and  won  a  royal  scholarship  that  took  him  to 
Munich  and  Berlin.     He  belongs  to  an  artistic  family,  for 


512  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

one  brother,  Otto,  is  a  painter,  and  another,  Stefan,  a  sculp- 
tor, Sinding's  music  is  melodic  in  character,  and  distinc- 
tively Norwegian  in  style,  but  less  so  than  that  of  Grieg. 
His  orchestral  works  include  an  excellent  symphony,  brought 
out  under  Weingartner  and  later  by  Thomas ;  an  attractive 
concerto  for  piano,  and  two  for  violin ;  a  "Rondo  Infinito" ; 
and  the  interesting  suite,  "Episodes  Chevaleresques."  His 
chamber-music,  violin  sonatas,  piano  solos,  and  songs  are 
made  of  the  most  attractive  material. 

Other  Norwegians.  —  Johann  Severin  Svendsen,  though 
prominent  in  Danish  music,  is  really  Norwegian  by  birth. 
Son  o>'  a  military  bandmaster,  he  soon  obtained  a  position 
similar  lo  his  father's.  But  he  longed  for  higher  things,  and 
after  a  tour  as  violin  virtuoso,  he  studied  at  Leipzig,  under 
Reinecke.  He  traveled  much,  meeting  in  Paris  an  American 
woman  whom  he  afterwards  married  in  her  own  country. 
After  some  experience  in  Christiania,  he  became  court  con- 
ductor in  Copenhagen,  where  he  owns  the  baton  used  by 
von  Weber  and  inscribed  with  that  composer's  name.  His 
orchestral  works  include  two  symphonies,  four  Norwegian 
Rhapsodies,  the  legend  "Zorahayde,"  and  the  "Carnival  at 
Paris,"  but  they  are  too  conventional  to  take  foremost  rank, 
A  prominent  composer  among  the  younger  Norwegians  is 
Ole  Olsen,  of  Hammerfest,  whose  symphonic  poem  "Asgards- 
reien"  is  but  one  of  his  many  successes.  Gerhard  Schjeldernp 
is  one  of  the  modern  radicals,  and  shows  all  the  complexity 
and  dissonance  of  Strauss.  Agathe  Backer-Grohndahl  (d. 
1907  ^  is  the  leader  of  the  Norwegian  women-composers. 

Music  in  Denmark. — In  Denmark,  the  fame  of  Gade  ob- 
scured that  of  other  composers,  and  such  a  man  as  J.  P.  E. 
Hartmann  could  gain  scarcely  more  than  local  reputation. 
The  most  important  name  in  recent  years  is  that  of  August 
£nna,  who  won  a  popular  operatic  triumph  in  1892  with 
"Die  Hexe,"  He  was  almost  wholly  self-taught,  for  poverty 
prevented  him  from  taking  lessons,  sometimes  even  from 
buying  music  paper.  "Cleopatra"  is  a  later  work,  while 
"The  Little  Match-Girl"  was  the  beginning  of  a  series  of 
fairy  operas.    Enna  handles  his  orchestra  with  boldness  and 


MUSIC   IN    SWEDEN.  513 

skill,  and  displays  vocal  fluency  and  thematic  excellence. 
Eduard  Lassen  gained  more  renown  by  his  melodious  songs 
than  by  his  operas  or  orchestral  works.  Otto  Mailing  is 
known  for  his  piano  pieces,  while  Victor  Bendix  has  at- 
tempted the  symphonic  poem.  Ludwig  Schytte  (died  1909), 
a  friend  of  Liszt,  has  made  Berlin  his  home,  and  is  identi- 
fied with  light  opera  as  well  as  piano  music. 

Music  in  Sweden. — The  national  opera  of  Sweden  was 
brought  into  being  by  Ivar  Hallstrom,  soon  after  the  middle 
of  the  19th  century.  Since  then,  a  new  school  has  arisen, 
showing  the  influence  of  Liszt,  Wagner,  Schumann,  and  at 
times,  Berlioz,  with  the  plaintive  sweetness  of  the  native 
Folk-music  pervading  it  all.  Anders  Hallen,  the  first  of  the 
new  romanticists,  has  written  four  operas  (of  which  "Hex- 
fallen"  is  the  best),  several  symphonic  poems  and  Swedish 
Rhapsodies,  a  number  of  ambitious  cantatas,  and  some  beau- 
tiful Swedish  and  German  songs.  He  unites  the  charm  of 
his  native  music  with  strength  of  passion  and  richness  of 
instrumentation.  Emil  Sjogren  shows  a  harmonic  feeling 
worthy  of  Grieg,  but  his  boldness  in  modulation  often  pro- 
duces bizarre  effects.  He  excels  in  the  smaller  forms,  such 
as  his  "Spanish  Songs,"  "Tannhauser  Lieder,"  and  several 
piano  cycles.  Wilhelm  Stenhammar,  pupil  of  these  two, 
shows  much  enthusiasm  and  spirit  in  his  music,  but  his 
operas  are  now  laid  aside.  Wilhelm  Peterson-Berger  is  the 
best  of  the  new  opera-composers,  his  music-drama  "Ran" 
being  a  recent  success.  Hugo  Alfven  has  attefnpted  the 
symphony,  with  fair  success.  Tor  Aulin,  a  famous  violinist, 
has  produced  concertos  and  other  works  for  his  instrument, 
while  Erik  Akerberg  has  devoted  his  energy  to  choral  works. 
Elfrida  Andrea  is  the  most  prominent  of  the  Swedish  women- 
composers. 

Music  in  Finland. — The  national  epic  of  Finland  is  the 
Kalevala,  a  work  of  real  poetic  beauty.  There  is  also  a  col- 
lection of  shorter  lyrics,  called  the  Kanteletar.  These  have 
furnished  inspiration  for  a  large  number  of  modern  com- 
posers, of  whom  the  most  important  is  Jean  Sibelius.  He 
studied  with  Becker  in   Berlin  and  Goldmark  in  Vienna. 


514  THE   HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

On  his  return  to  Ilelsingfors,  the  capital,  he  became  the 
leader  of  the  new  Finnish  school.  His  two  symphonies  are 
worthy  if  not  absolutely  great,  but  his  symphonic  poems, 
and  the  suite  "King  Christian  IV,"  show  real  musical 
beauty.  He  has  been  active  in  the  smaller  forms  also,  and 
holds  the  Government  pension  for  musical  excellence. 
Armas  Jarnefelt  is  another  good  orchestral  composer,  while 
Ernest  Mielck,  who  died  at  twenty-two,  showed  a  lyric 
beauty  not  unworthy  of  Schubert.  Richard  Faltin  is  one  of 
the  older  song-composers.  Martin  Wegelius,  died  1906,  did 
valuable  work  as  director  of  the  Musical  Institute,  while 
Robert  Kajanus  became  prominent  as  the  founder  and  leader 
of  the  Helsingfors  Philharmonic  Orchestra.  Both  are  ex- 
cellent composers,  the  former  working  chiefly  in  vocal  forms, 
the  latter  in  the  orchestral  field. 

Questions. 
Who  founded  the  Bohemian  school  of  composers? 
Who  v^as  his  greatest  pupil? 

Name  the  most  important  works  of  these  two  composers. 
What  contribution  did  Dvorak  make  to  the  symphony  ? 
Who  is  the  leading  Norwegian  composer? 
Name  some  of  his  best-known  works. 
Compare  Grieg  and  Sinding. 

What  composers  of  Danish  birth  have  won  appreciation? 
Name  the  leading  Swedish  composers. 
Who  is  the  most  important  Finnish  composer? 


LESSON  LVI. 

The  Russian  School. 

Folk-Music  in  Kussia. — The  Slav  nature  differs  greatly 
from  that  of  the  races  of  Western  Europe,  and  this  differ- 
ence appears  also  in  the  Slavonic  music.  For  a  proper 
understanding  of  the  Russian  Folk-songs,  the  student  should 
be  familiar  with  the  country  and  its  history,  its  vast  steppes, 
its  lonely  summers  and  dreary  winters,  and  the  patient 
poverty  of  its  long-suffering  peasants.  It  is  rich  in  legen- 
dary lore,  and  the  poetry  of  Pushkin  and  Gogol  has  wrought 
the  wild  beauty  of  these  tales  into  permanent  form.  The 
popular  melodies  trace  their  origin  back  to  pagan  times, 
and  show  infinite  variety.  There  are  epic  chants,  songs  of 
weddings  and  funerals,  and  weirdly  beautiful  cradle-songs, 
Their  delicate,  capricious  rhythm,  and  their  strangeness  of 
harmony  and  cadence,  possess  the  utmost  attraction.  At 
times  the  songs  are  strong  and  savage,  at  times  tranquil  and 
majestic,  or  brisk  and  graceful ;  but  usually  they  are  tinged 
with  the  profound  melancholy  of  an  oppressed  race.  The 
church  music,  too,  with  its  old  modes  and  deep-voiced  choirs, 
flourishes  in  unusual  purity. 

The  Rise  of  Russian  Music. — In  the  middle  of  the  i8th 
century,  the  Imperial  Court  began  to  import  foreign  com- 
posers, and  St.  Petersburg  was  enabled  to  hear  and  see 
such  men  as  Paisiello,  Cimarosa,  and  Boieldieu.  Works  in 
the  native  language  soon  followed,  and  the  Venetian  Cavos 
became  so  identified  with  Russian  music  that  he  might 
almost  have  passed  for  a  native.  The  first  Russian  com- 
poser, however,  was  Glinka,  whose  "Life  for  the  Czar" 
( 1836)  was  received  with  profound  enthusiasm  by  the  entire 
nation.    Other  composers  followed,  the  best  of  whom  were 

(515) 


5l6  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

Dargomishky  and  Seroff.  The  former  died  only  recently, 
and  his  later  works  show  the  Wagnerian  influence.  Instru- 
mental music  flourished  also.  The  rich  melodic  beauty  of 
Rubinstein  charmed  all  Europe,  and  only  the  passionate 
power  of  Tchaikovsky  placed  it  in  the  background.  But 
now  even  he,  the  greatest  of  the  Russians,  is  not  considered 
truly  national  by  his  countrymen,  who  think  him  too  German 
in  style. 

Balakireff. — Of  the  five  men  who  strove  to  make  Russian 
music  distinctively  national,  Mily  Alexejevitch  Balakireff 
(Nijni-Novgorod,  Russia,  1836)  was  not  the  greatest,  but 
may  justly  be  called  the  founder  of  the  movement.  After 
his  university  studies,  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Alex- 
ander Oulibicheff,  a  retired  diplomat  who  devoted  himself 
to  music.  The  young  man  soon  settled  in  St.  Petersburg, 
where  he  met  Cui,  and  began  with  him  the  work  of  de- 
veloping the  new  school.  Balakireflf  has  been  active  as 
pianist,  teacher,  and  concert  leader.  The  musical  principles 
adopted  by  him  and  his  four  associates  called  for  the  use 
of  Russian  Folk-music  in  just  the  way  that  Dvorak  em- 
ployed the  plantation  style  in  his  "New  World"  symphony. 
This  idea  is  at  least  as  old  as  the  days  of  Weber,  whose 
"Freischiitz,"  written  in  the  popular  vein,  made  such  an 
overwhelming  triumph  in  Germany.  With  the  wealth  of 
beautiful  Folk-songs  in  Russia,  it  has  been  possible  to  pro- 
duce an  immense  amount  of  interesting  music,  with  which 
the  Western  world  is  as  yet  by  no  means  fully  acquainted. 
Balakireff  himself  was  not  prolific  as  a  composer,  but  his 
works,  though  few  in  number,  show  real  value.  They  in- 
clude a  symphony,  three  overtures  (Russian,  Czech,  and 
Spanish),  incidental  music  to  "King  Lear,"  the  symphonic 
poem  "Russia,"  and  a  second  one,  "Tamara,"  based  on  the 
legend  of  a  beautiful  Caucasian  princess  who  entertained  the 
passing  cavalier  for  a  night,  while  in  the  morning  the  river 
Tarek  bore  away  his  corpse.  Another  Oriental  subject  is 
the  difficult  piano  fantasie  "Islamey."  His  lesser  works  in- 
clude mazurkas,  some  four-hand  pieces,  and  a  score  of  re- 
markable songs,  masterly  in  their  perfection  of  detail. 


Anton  Aeenskt. 
Alexander  Glazoxjnov. 
Nicholas  Rimsky-Kobsakoff. 


Cesar  Cm, 

Milt  Balakikeff. 

Sergei  Rachmaninoff. 


5l8  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Cesar  Antonovitch  Cui  (Vilna,  Russia,  1835)  has  been  the 
hterary  champion  of  the  new  school.  Son  of  a  French 
soldier,  Cui  studied  engineering,  and  became  professor  of 
fortification.  In  his  writings  we  may  see  that  the  new 
Russians  seem  unwilling  to  admit  the  greatness  of  Wagner, 
but  they  have  none  the  less  adopted  nearly  all  his  dra- 
matic theories.  Like  him,  they  revolted  against  the  inanities 
of  the  old  Italian  opera,  which  was  merely  a  singing-concert. 
They  admitted  that  after  Beethoven  and  Schumann,  the 
symphony  could  say  little  of  new  import,  but  reform  was 
needed  in  opera ;  the  plot  should  be  worthy,  and  the  music 
not  only  good  in  itself,  but  appropriate  to  the  sentiment. 
Yet  Russian  opera  has  not  followed  Wagner,  but  has  pro- 
ceeded along  its  own  lines  ;  and  Cui  even  writes :  "I  would 
like  to  preserve  my  compatriots  from  the  dangerous  influence 
of  Wagner's  decadence.  Whoever  loves  his  music,  ceases 
to  appreciate  real  music ;  whoever  admires  his  operas,  holds 
Glinka  as  a  writer  of  vaudevilles.  The  desire  to  find  some- 
thing deep  where  nothing  exists  can  have  only  dangerous 
consequences,"  These  strictures  are  not  unlike  certain  early 
German  criticisms  of  Wagner,  now  happily  forgotten.  Cui's 
own  operas  include  "The  Prisoner  of  the  Caucasus,"  "Wil- 
liam RatclifT,"  "Angelo,"  "Le  Filibustier,"  and  "The  Sar- 
acen," but  none  has  won  any  real  success.  His  music  is 
good,  but  even  his  own  countrymen  admit  that  it  lacks 
novelty  or  individuality,  "Angelo"  is  the  composer's  fa- 
vorite.    He,  too,  has  done  much  in  the  smaller  forms. 

Moussorgsky. — The  strangest  figure  in  the  group  of  five 
was,  by  all  odds.  Modest  Petrovitch  Moussorgsky  (Karevo, 
Russia,  1839 — St.  Petersburg,  1881).  Like  Cui,  he  re- 
ceived a  military  training,  and  became  an  officer,  but  his 
restiveness  soon  caused  his  resignation,  and  two  later  at- 
tempts at  Government  work  were  again  failures.  His  fond- 
ness for  drink,  and  his  many  excesses,  soon  marked  him  as 
a  Bohemian  whose  dominating  passions  and  savage  inde- 
pendence could  brook  no  restraint.  The  same  qualities  are 
shown  in  his  music.  He  was  a  poet  by  nature,  expressing 
in  great  thoughts  the  passion  and  misery  of  humanity,  but 


BORODIN.      RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF.  5ig 

never  taking  the  trouble  to  master  the  technic  of  his  art. 
Thus  his  two  operas,  "Boris  Godunoff"  and  "Chovanst- 
china,"  did  not  meet  with  favor  until  smoothed  and  polished 
by  his  more  learned  friends.  The  same  is  true  of  his  "Night 
on  Calvary"  and  "Intermezzo"  for  orchestra.  His  "Defeat 
of  Sennacherib"  is  one  of  many  "Hebraic  Choruses,"  while 
the  "Tableaux  d'une  Exposition"  are  among  the  best  of  his 
piano  pieces.  His  songs  include  settings  of  Goethe  and 
Heine,  as  well  as  the  Russian  poets. 

Alexander  Porphyrievitch  Borodin  (St.  Petersburg,  Rus- 
sia, 1834-1887)  could  claim  kinship  with  the  old  princes  of 
Imeretia,  the  former  Caucasian  kingdom  whose  rulers 
boasted  of  their  descent  from  King  David,  He  studied 
medicine  and  surgery,  and  wrote  several  important  works  on 
chemistry.  He  was  active  in  the  cause  of  higher  education 
for  women,  and  founded  a  medical  school  for  them.  In 
music  he  owed  his  development  chiefly  to  Balakireff,  though 
he  composed  at  an  early  age,  almost  by  instinct.  The  suc- 
cess of  his  first  symphony  encouraged  him  to  write  two 
others,  as  well  as  an  orchestral  scherzo.  His  two  string 
quartets  are  full  of  originality,  and  his  choral  and  piano 
music  shows  the  same  quality.  He  is  best  known  in  America 
by  the  "Steppenskizze,"  a  tone-picture  of  the  vast  Russian 
plains  traversed  by  Oriental  caravans.  His  greatest  work, 
however,  is  the  opera  "Prince  Igor,"  on  an  old  Russian  war- 
legend  treated  by  Pushkin.  Borodin  is  a  master  of  sombre 
effects,  and  his  dissonances  are  at  times  almost  too  striking; 
but  there  is  real  musical  worth,  also,  in  his  compositions. 

Rimsky-Korsakoff. — The  best  of  the  renowned  group  of 
five  is  decidedly  Nicolai  Andreievitch  Rimsky-Korsakoff 
(Tikhvin,  Russia,  1844)  (d.  1900).  He  adopted  a  vocation 
other  than  music,  graduating  from  a  Government  school  and 
afterwards  attaining  the  rank  of  admiral.  His  chief  musical 
work  has  been  in  opera,  and  his  dozen  productions  in  this 
form  are  nearly  all  widely  popular  in  his  native  land.  "The 
Czar's  Betrothed"  is  the  best  known,  but  the  "May  Night," 
"The  Snow  Maiden,"  and  "Sadko"  are  not  far  behind  it  in 
favor.    "Mozart  and  Salieri"  is  a  one-act  version  of  a  poem 


520  THE    IIIoTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

by  Pushkin,  based  on  the  suspicion  that  ]\Iozart  was  really 
poisoned  by  his  Italian  rival.  In  the  orchestral  field,  "An- 
tar,"  "Scheherezade,"  and  "Sadko"  are  three  symphonic 
poems  that  show  remarkable  ma^'^'^'^y  of  expression.  Other 
orchestral  works  are  an  overture  '  popular  melodies,  2^ 
other  on  church  themes,  a  "Serb  'antasie,"  a  "Spanish 
Caprice,"  and  a  "Fairy  Legend."  He  has  written  a  nobi^ 
and  dignified  concerto,  dedicated  to  Liszt,  and  the  usual 
number  of  lesser  works.  He  shows  the  greatest  siclll  in 
handling  instrumental  color,  an  art  for  which  the  Russians 
are  noted.  His  music  is  descripdv-e,  dramatic.  His  in- 
spiration never  flags,  and  his  treatment  of  the  thematic  ma- 
terial is  always  interesting  and  skilful.  His  music  may  per- 
haps be  criticised  as  lacking  unity,  but  its  breadth  ar 
originality  are  undoubted. 

Glazounoff. — Among  men  of  a  later  generation,  Alexander 
Constantinovitch  Glazounoff  (St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  1865) 
is  the  most  prominent,  and  the  only  one  who  may  dispute 
with  Rimsky-KorsakoflF,  his  former  teacher,  the  position  of 
greatest  of  the  living  Russian  composers.  Son  of  a  ]ici'> 
bookseller,  he  was  able  to  devote  all  his  energies  to  music, 
and  produced  at  eighteen  a  symphony  that  won  the  con- 
gratulations of  Liszt.  Since  then  he  has  composed  works 
as  beautiful  as  they  are  numerous.  His  early  creations  show 
a  tendency  to  fantastic  and  imaginative  subjects.  The  haunt- 
ing beauty  of  tke  forest,  the  inspiring  charm  of  spring,  the 
ccmipelling  magic  of  the  sea,  the  gorgeousness  of  the  Orient, 
the  majesty  of  the  historic  Kremlin,  all  find  an  echo  in  his 
great  orchestral  rhapsodies.  His  seven  symphonies  are 
marvels  of  harmonic  richness  and  melodic  beauty.  His 
"Triumphal  March"  for  the  Chicago  Exposition,  and  a 
"Coronation  Cantata"  for  the  Czar,  were  both  written  to 
order.  His  early  overtures  are  based  on  sacred  themes,  but 
the  "Carnival"  and  the  "Ouverture  Solennelle"  are  again  in 
the  style  of  vivid  coloring  to  which  he  has  accustomed  his 
hearers.  His  eighty  or  more  published  compositions  in- 
clude ballades,  marches,  suites,  mazurkas,  and  other  num- 
bers for  orchestra,  to  say  nothing  of  chamber  works,  songs, 


ARENSKY.  521 

cantatas,  and  two  piano  sonatas.  For  a  time,  he  renounced 
his  early  style,  and  wrote  serious  works  in  classical  German 
vein,  but  he  returned  to  it  with  a  number  of  ballets,  or 
pantomimes  with  real  plot  and  full  orchestral  accompani- 
ment. 

Anton  Stepanovitch  Arensky  (Nijni-Novgorod,  Russia, 
1861-1906)  is  another  of  a  younger  generation,  and  like 
Glazounoff,  did  not  limit  himself  to  the  style  of  Russian 
Folk-music,  but  aims  to  be  more  cosmopolitan.  Educated  at 
St.  Petersburg,  Arensky  soon  became  known  by  a  symphony 
and  a  piano  concerto,  and  was  called  to  Moscow  as  professor 
of  counterpoint.  In  that  city  he  increased  his  reputation  by 
a  grand  opera,  "A  Dream  on  the  Volga."  "Raphael,"  a 
one-act  work,  was  followed  by  the  ballet,  "A  Night  in 
Egypt,"  but  Arensky's  greatest  opera  is  "Nal  and  Dama- 
janti,"  on  an  East  Indian  subject.  His  other  works  include 
a  second  symphony,  a  fantasie  with  piano,  a  violin  concerto, 
and  a  "Memorial  March."  He  displays  real  strength  of 
feeling,  and  he  shows  the  influence  of  Schumann  and 
Tchaikovsky,  especially  in  his  piano  music. 

Other  Composers. — Taneieff,  one  of  those  who  held  apart 
from  the  national  movement,  has  written  a  symphony,  some 
string  quartets,  and  numerous  choruses,  but  is  best  known 
by  his  "Oresteia,"  an  orchestral  trilogy  based  on  the  trag- 
edies of  Aeschylus.  This  is  a  work  of  dignity  and  power, 
but  at  times  lacking  in  inspiration,  Rachmaninoif,  a  pupil 
of  Arensky,  is  one  of  the  younger  men  who  won  fame  as 
a  pianist  and  piano  composer  before  attempting  larger  works. 
His  more  ambitious  compositions  include  two  concertos,  a 
symphony,  a  symphonic  poem,  and  the  cantata  "Spring," 
also  two  operas  "The  Bohemians"  and  "The  Avaricious 
Knight."  Another  piano  composer  is  Stcherbatcheff,  a  pupil 
of  Liszt,  who  displays  excessive  boldness  in  his  effects, 
though  his  "Fairy  Scenes"  are  charming  in  style,  and  his 
"Fantasies  Etudes"  show  the  influence  of  Schumann. 
Liadoff  is  another  composer  of  piano  works,  such  as  the 
"Arabesques"  and  the  "Birioulki."  Scriabine  is  one  of  the 
more  recent  piano  writers  who  has  won  his  spurs  in  the 


522  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

symphonic  field  also.  Pachulski,  too,  has  become  known  by 
his  piano  compositions.  Wihtol  has  done  much  valuable 
work  in  collecting  the  Lett  Folk-melodies.  Solovieff  has  at- 
tempted opera,  though  not  with  any  remai  kable  success. 
Ippolitoff-Ivanoff,  active  in  the  musical  life  of  Moscow,  has 
produced  operas,  suites,  and  the  set  of  lyric  scenes,  entitled 
"Asia."  Michael  Ivanoff  is  another  opera  composer,  whose 
"Sabawa"  has  met  with  some  favor.  Among  many  others 
worthy  of  mention,  Sokoloff  has  written  chamber-works, 
Alpheraki  is  noted  for  his  songs,  Antipoff  and  Blumenfeld 
have  produced  excellent  piano  music,  while  Rebikoff,  known 
for  the  same  reason,  has  won  new  laurels  with  his  so-called 
mimodrame,  "Genius  and  Death." 

Tchaikovsky. — Although  the  new  Russian  school  does  not 
recognize  Peter  Iljitsch  Tchaikovsky  as  an  exponent  of 
national  musical  ideas  and  although  he  represents  a  blend- 
ing of  Teutonic  and  Slavonic  methods,  yet  his  music  par- 
takes of  the  latter,  rather  than  of  the  former  temperament, 
and  he  is  therefore  included  among  the  Russian  composers 
in  this  lesson.  He  was  born  May  7,  1840;  at  ten  he  went 
to  St.  Petersburg.  He  was  intended  for  the  legal  profession 
and  was  appointed  to  a  place  in  the  Ministry  of  Justice 
when  only  nineteen  years  old.  Shortly  after,  he  entered 
the  harmony  classes  at  the  Conservatory,  resigned  his 
Government  position,  and  entered  the  musical  profession. 
In  1866  he  became  professor  of  harmony  at  the  Moscow 
Conservatory ;  in  1867,  brought  out  his  first  symphony  and 
his  first  opera.  In  1877  he  resigned  his  post  at  the  Conser- 
vatory and  gave  himself  up  to  composition.  In  1891  he 
visited  the  United  States.  He  died,  October  12,  1893,  in 
St.  Petersburg. 

His  compositions  include  eight  operas,  six  symphonies, 
eight  overtures  and  fantasias  for  orchestra,  seven  works  for 
special  occasions,  eight  orchestral  suites,  three  string  quar- 
tets, a  trio  and  sextet,  three  concertos  and  two  other  pieces 
for  piano  and  orchestra,  three  works  for  violin  and  orchestra, 
and  two  for  'cello  and  orchestra,  a  large  number  of  piano 
pieces  and  vocal  works. 


LESSON    HELPS.  523 

An  English  critic  sums  up  Tchaikovsky's  orchestral  works 
thus:  Good  points,  beauty  of  melody,  brilliancy  of  work- 
manship, beauty  of  color;  weak  points,  undue  pursuit  of 
the  morbid,  extravagance  of  idea,  noisiness  of  orchestration. 

Conclusion. — At  the  beginning  of  the  20th  century,  the 
chief  characteristic  of  music  seems  to  be  a  development  of 
national  schools.  As  already  explained,  in  those  countries 
that  have  worthy  Folk-music,  composers  find  the  material 
ready  for  them  to  fashion.  Such  has  been  the  case  in  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  and  Bohemia,  as  well  as  in  Russia.  Coun- 
tries that  have  not  this  advantage,  such  as  England,  the 
Netherlands,  or  America,  atone  for  it  in  part  by  study  and 
education ;  but  this  seldom  produces  great  musical  geniuses. 
Italy,  where  the  common  people  cared  for  nothing  but  the 
lighter  style  of  tune,  has  had  to  build  anew,  upon  foreign 
foundations.  France  is  making  a  brave  struggle  after 
novelty,  but  seems  to  lack  the  needed  inspiration ;  while 
Germany,  for  the  moment,  seems  content  with  mastering 
the  modern  orchestra.  The  Russian  school  is  today  the  most 
spontaneous,  the  least  artificial;  and  it  cannot  fail  to  grow 
in  appreciation  during  the  next  few  years. 

References. 
Habets. — Borodin  and  Liszt. 
Newmarch. — Life  of  Tchaikovsky. 
Lee. — Tchaikovski,  Music  of  the  Masters  Series. 

Questions. 

What  is  the  character  of  the  Slavonic  Folk-music? 

Who  was  the  first  Russian  composer  of  prominence  ? 

Give  a  sketch  of  the  v/ork  of  the  composers,  Balakireff, 
Moussorgsky,  Cui,  Borodin,  Rimsky-Korsakoff  and  Gla- 
zounoff. 

What  composition  and  by  whom  is  it  considered  one  of 
the  most  difficult  pieces  written  for  the  piano? 

What  composer's  influence  is  shown  in  the  works  of 
Arensky  ? 

Name  other  prominent  Russian  composers. 


Theodore  Thomas. 
Lowell  MASOif.  S'jtephen  C.  Fosteb. 


LESSON  LVh. 

Music  in  the  United  States. 

The  Cavaliers  and  the  Pur-.cans. — The  English  settlers  who 
came  to  this  countr}^  and  located  at  Jamestown,  and  their 
successors,  brought  with  them  from  their  home  the  songs 
they  sang  there — gay  songs,  cavalier  songs,  love-ditties  and 
the  countryside  tunes ;  but  they  left  them  at  this,  making 
no  attempt  to  adapt  them  to  their  new  surroundings.  In- 
deed, it  was  as  much  a  matter  of  fashion  to  be  able  to  play 
or  to  sing  some  new  ballad  just  brought  from  London  as 
it  was  to  have  the  latest  fashion  in  dress.  The  Cavaliers 
were  not  the  people  to  give  a  distinctive  tone  to  music  in 
their  adopted  home.  The  stern,  severe,  religious  atmosphere 
of  the  New  England  Colonies  did  more  for  the  beginnings 
of  American  music,  although  the  first  efforts  were  un- 
promising enough,  since  the  Puritans  discountenanced  all 
music  except  that  of  Psalm  tunes,  which  were  probably  sung 
in  unison,  since  at  that  time  there  could  be  little  question 
of  singing  in  parts.  Owing  probably  to  a  scarcity  of  hymn- 
books,  it  was  customary  to  read  the  hymn  line  by  line,  and 
to  sing  in  alternation  with  the  reading,  a  custom  observed  in 
some  sections  of  the  United  States  even  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  19th  century.  It  was  inevitable  that  the  more  pro- 
gressive among  the  clergy  and  the  people  should  demand 
better  singing  of  the  Psalms ;  and  from  this  came  the  first 
singing  schools,  the  beginning  of  musical  education  in  the 
Colonies.  A  singing  school  is  noted  in  Boston  in  1 717.  As 
this  movement  spread,  choirs  were  organized,  since  those 
who  had  gained  some  skill  in  singing  and  in  reading  from 
notes  would  naturally  draw  together,  at  first  informally,  later 
in  regular  organizations.  This  occurred  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  i8th  century. 

(525) 


526  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Hymn-Tune  Composers.  —  The  prominence  given  to  the 
singing  of  Psalms  and  hymns  is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  first  composers  developed  in  the  Colonies  confined 
their  eflforts  to  the  production  of  hymn-tunes.  The  first 
to  gain  prominence  was  William  Billings,  born  in  Boston 
in  1746,  died  there,  1800.  He  was  a  tanner  by  trade  and 
was,  of  course,  self-taught.  His  efforts  at  harmonizing 
were  rather  crude,  as  is  to  be  expected,  since  he  had  but 
few  models  in  composition.  He  introduced  a  somewhat 
florid  style,  although  without  training  in  counterpoint.  Yet 
the  critic  can  see  in  the  work  of  the  early  composers  such 
as  Billings,  a  rough  vigor  and  a  striving  for  a  more  distinc- 
tive melodic  and  rhythmic  character  than  is  to  be  found  in 
the  tunes  brought  over  from  England,  showing  traces  of 
the  forces  already  at  work  to  differentiate  the  American 
character  from  the  English.  Billings'  first  collection  of 
tunes  was  published  in  1770.  Other  composers  of  this 
period  were  Oliver  Holden,  who  wrote  the  widely-sung 
"Coronation,"  Andrew  Law,  Jacob  Kimball,  Daniel  Read 
and  Timothy  Swan.  The  two  other  important  cities,  Phila- 
delphia and  New  York,  had  some  musical  activity  during 
the  Colonial  period.  In  1741,  Benjamin  Franklin  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  hymns,  performances  were  given  of 
operas,  and  concerts  for  charitable  purposes  were  organized,' 
yet  nothing  in  the  way  of  native  composition  developed. 

Early  Musical  Organizations. — A  musical  atmosphere  is 
essential  to  musical  development  and  progress,  and  a  musi- 
cal atmosphere  comes  only  from  organized  effort  in  musical 
work.  The  first  efforts  in  this  direction  were  vocal,  fol- 
lowing the  same  line  of  development  as  that  we  observed 
in  the  history  of  music  as  a  whole,  namely :  first,  vocal  and 
choral  music;  secondly,  instrumental  and  particularly  or- 
chestral. The  earliest  important  society  of  this  kind  was 
the  Stoughton  (Mass.)  Musical  Society,  which  grew  out 
of  a  singing  class  formed  in  that  town,  by  Billings,  in  1774. 
This  organization  still  exists.  The  most  famous  and  most 
-significant  body  for  musical  development  was  the  Handel 
and  Haydn  Society,  still  in  existence,  which  was  organized 


LOWELL    MASON.  527 

in  Boston,  in  1815,  with  a  chorus  of  nearly  one  hundred 
voices.  Boston  had  at  this  time  some  well-trained  musi- 
cians, and  others  came  there  from  Europe  in  later  years, 
making  it  the  centre  of  American  musical  life  for  years. 

Lowell  Mason. — In  1826,  a  young  man  from  the  South, 
but  born  in  Massachusetts,  came  to  Boston  to  begin  a 
musical  career,  which  formed  a  link  between  the  early  sing- 
ing school  stage  and  the  work  of  the  present  day.  This 
was  Lowell  Mason,  who  was  born  in  1792,  but  spent  his 
younger  days  in  Savannah,  Ga.,  where  he  studied  music  as 
an  amateur.  As  the  fruit  of  his  efforts  in  composition,  he 
published  a  collection  of  church  music  which  was  endorsed 
by  the  Handel  and  Haydn  Society,  and  proved  very  suc- 
cessful, encouraging  him,  some  years  later,  to  take  up 
music  as  a  profession.  He  was  essentially  a  man  of  the 
people  among  whom  he  lived  and  by  nature  an  efficient 
teacher,  to  which  he  added  a  skill  and  training  that  ensured 
him  the  respect  of  those  who  came  under  his  instruction. 
He  traveled  over  New  England  and  parts  of  New  York 
State,  holding  musical  conventions,  and  teaching  the  prin- 
ciples of  music  to  hundreds  of  singers  and  teachers  from 
far  and  near.  His  work  thus  closely  touched  the  people, 
and  in  a  day  when  music  was  not  taught  in  the  public 
schools,  contributed  greatly  to  spread  a  love  for  and  a 
knowledge  of  vocal  music.    He  died  August  11,  1872. 

Musical  Instruments. — When  instrumental  music  began  to 
receive  a  share  of  public  attention,  a  great  step  was  taken 
toward  development  of  music  in  the  United  States.  In  cities 
like  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  some  Southern 
homes,  instruments  of  the  spinet  and  virginal  type  could 
be  found  in  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries.  The  flute  was  a 
gentleman's  instrument  in  those  days,  following  the  English 
custom.  The  violin  also  received  some  attention.  (Thomas 
Jefferson  was  very  fond  of  this  instrument.)  Naturally, 
the  first  instruments  were  brought  from  England,  yet  the 
record  shows  that  John  Harris,  of  Boston,  who  had  learned 
the  trade  in  England,  offered  for  sale  spinets  of  his  own 
make,   in   1769.     Some  church  organs   were  built   several 


528  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

years  earlier.  The  harpsichord  and  piano  followed  in  due 
course  of  time,  as  we  can  gather  from  advertisements  and 
concert  programs.  There  is  controversy  as  to  the  making 
of  the  first  pianos  in  the  United  States.  Both  Philadelphia 
and  Boston  seem  to  have  had  makers  in  a  small  way  before 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  The  pioneer  in  this  in- 
dustry was  Jonas  Chickering,  who  served  his  apprenticeship 
in  Boston  and  started  in  business  on  his  own  account,  in 
1823.  The  growth  of  interest  in  music  arising  from  the 
organization  of  choral  societies  and  the  labors  of  Lowell 
Mason,  and  the  musicians  of  foreign  birth  who  came  to  this 
country  created  a  demand  for  music  outside  of  that  for 
the  voice,  organ  and  piano,  for  many  of  these  musicians  had 
been  players  in  orchestras  in  Europe. 

Early  Orchestras. — The  first  permanent  body  of  orchestral 
players,  the  Philharmonic  Society,  was  formed  in  Boston. 
The  chief  promoter  was  a  German,  named  Graupner,  who 
came  to  the  city  named,  in  1798.  He  gathered  round  him 
a  few  professionals  and  some  amateurs,  so  that  the  nucleus 
of  an  orchestra  existed  before  the  Handel  and  Haydn  So- 
ciety was  formed.  Graupner  also  kept  a  music  store  and 
printed  music.  A  large  orchestra  was  established  in  1840, 
which  remained  active  for  nearly  a  decade.  New  York  had 
an  organization  of  instrumentalists  which  was  started  about 
the  same  time  as  Graupner's  society  in  Boston,  but  its  real 
work  in  this  line  did  not  occur  until  1842,  when  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society  was  founded,  with  a  strength  of  from  fifty 
to  sixty  players.  This  society  still  exists.  The  strongest 
musical  force  in  Philadelphia  was  the  Musical  Fund  Society, 
which  came  into  existence  in  1820,  one  object  of  which  was 
to  spread  musical  knowledge  in  the  city.  It  built  a  hall, 
which  still  stands,  and  gave  both  vocal  and  instrumental 
concerts.  Beethoven's  first  symphony  was  given  there,  as 
early  as  182 1. 

Permanent  Orchestral  Organizations. — The  credit  for  rais- 
ing the  standard  of  orchestral  work  and  of  spreading  a 
popular  appreciation  of  the  classics  in  absolute  music  be- 
longs to  Theodore  Thomas,   born   in   Germany,   in    1835, 


THEOIX'RE   THOMAS.  529 

whose  family  came  to  this  country  in  1845.  H^  became  a 
proficient  vioHnist  while  still  a  boy.  His  first  efforts  in 
the  line  of  the  higher  music  were  in  the  domain  of  chamber- 
music  ;  in  these  concerts  he  was  associated  with  Dr.  William 
Mason  and  others.  In  1864,  he  began  his  work  in  the  or- 
chestral field,  in  New  York,  visiting  other  cities  with  his 
men  and  spreading  a  knowledge  of  the  works  of  the  masters. 
Mr.  Thomas  conducted  a  series  of  concerts  in  Philadelphia, 
but  finished  his  labors  in  Chicago,  as  the  conductor  of  the 
Chicago  Orchestra,  which  was  established  for  him.  He 
died  in  1905.  Following  the  increased  interest  in  orchestral 
music  in  New  York  City,  due  to  the  work  of  Thomas,  the 
Boston  musical  public  called  for  a  higher  standard  and  a 
more  skilled  set  of  players  than  the  successors  of  the  old 
Philharmonic  Orchestra,  the  Germania  and  the  Harvard 
Musical  Association,  which  had  kept  up  the  work  in  a 
creditable  manner.  The  outgrowth  of  this  sentiment  was 
the  establishment  of  the  celebrated  Boston  Symphony  Or- 
chestra, which  gave  its  first  concerts  in  the  fall  of  1881, 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Georg  Henschel.  The  financial 
needs  of  the  organization  were  guaranteed  by  Mr.  Henry  L, 
Higginson.  Mr.  Henschel  was  succeeded,  in  1884,  by  Wil- 
helm  Gericke,  who  was  followed  five  years  later  by  Arthur 
Nikisch  ;  in  1893.  Mr.  Emil  Paur  was  made  director,  to  be 
succeeded  in  1898  by  Wilhelm  Gericke,  who  is  still  (1905) 
at  the  head  of  the  organization.  The  work  of  the  orchestras 
mentioned  stimulated  music  lovers  in  other  cities  and  at 
the  present  time,  worthy  rivals  of  the  older  bodies  exist  in 
Philadelphia,  Mr.  Fritz  Scheel,  director,  the  New  York 
Symphony  Orchestra,  Mr.  Walter  Damrosch,  director,  and 
the  Pittsburgh  Orchestra,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Emil 
Paur.  Baltimore  has  a  good  orchestra  in  connection  with 
the  Peabody  Conservatory,  Cincinnati  has  a  permanent  body 
with  a  guarantee  fund,  under  the  conductorship  of  Mr. 
Frank  Van  der  Stucken.  The  orchestras  mentioned  give 
concerts  in  other  cities,  so  that  their  work  has  more  than  a 
local  significance.  Other  cities  in  which  efforts  are  being 
made  to  develop  orchestral  music  are  New  Haven,  Buffalo, 


530  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

Washington,   Cleveland,  Atlanta,   St.   Louis,   Kansas   City, 
San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles  and  Denver. 

Other  Organized  Bodies. — Other  means  for  promoting 
musical  progress  in  the  United  States  were  the  societies  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  which  provided  concerts, 
aided  musical  education,  kept  up  public  interest,  the  great 
German  singing  societies,  music  festival  associations,  lec- 
ture courses,  etc.  A  prominent  example  of  this  kind  was 
the  Musical  Fund  Society  of  Philadelphia  which,  among  its 
other  activities,  opened  a  music  school  that  remained  in  ex- 
istence for  six  years.  The  Harvard  Musical  Association, 
an  organization  of  alumni  who  labored  particularly  for 
the  advancement  of  music,  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  musical 
library  and  conducted  orchestral  concerts  at  its  own  expense 
or  guarantee.  In  later  years  Pittsburgh  had  an  active  so- 
ciety to  promote  musical  appreciation  and  the  example  is 
being  followed  by  other  cities.  The  greatest  growth  in  this 
line,  that  of  the  formation  of  music  festival  associations  and 
the  development  of  the  idea,  was  doubtless  stimulated  by 
the  great  festivals  held  in  Boston  in  1869  and  1872.  Of 
these,  the  most  important  is  the  one  held  in  Cincinnati,  for 
a  number  of  years  under  the  direction  of  Theodore  Thomas ; 
after  his  death,  under  Mr.  Van  der  Stucken.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  give  here  a  list  of  such  organizations ;  they  are 
growing  in  numbers  over  all  the  country  and  form  a  hope- 
ful sign  of  an  increasing  and  healthy  interest  in  music.  In 
addition  to  the  work  of  these  societies  must  be  mentioned 
the  series  of  chamber-music  concerts  given  by  quartet  or- 
ganizations in  all  the  important  cities,  a  kind  of  music 
which  demands  a  higher  class  of  musical  culture  than  any 
other  and  which  is,  therefore,  a  good  index  of  the  musical 
appreciation  of  a  community.  The  great  public  libraries 
have  collections  of  musical  literature,  as  well  as  the  printed 
works  of  the  great  masters.  Notable  among  these  is  the 
Brown  Collection,  in  the  Boston  Public  Library ;  the  New- 
berry Library  of  Chicago  has  a  very  fine  collection  of  mu- 
sical literature,  including  many  rare  works,  and  the  new 
public  library  in  New  York  City  will  also  have  works  of 


FOLK-MUSIC.  531 

great  value  to  musicians.  The  Crosby-Brown  Collection  of 
musical  instruments  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 
New  York  City,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the  world ; 
another  collection  of  note  is  that  which  belongs  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan. 

Folk-Music. — In  a  study  of  conditions  connected  with  the 
development  of  music  in  the  United  States,  we  will  not  find 
the  wealth  of  material  in  the  direction  of  Folk-music  that 
European  countries  possess.  The  American  people  being  a 
composite  one  cannot  have  a  true  Folk-music  as  yet.  There 
are  but  two  types  of  music  that  can  be  classed  in  this  cate- 
gory, the  music  of  the  Indians  and  that  of  the  negro  in  his 
plantation  life.  The  characteristics  of  both  have  been  used 
by  American  composers  in  large  works  (Edward  Mac 
Dowell :  "Indian  Suite,"  for  the  orchestra ;  Frederic  Bur- 
ton, in  a  choral  work),  yet  the  Indian  race  forms  no  part 
of  the  dominant  Caucasian  people  of  the  United  States  and 
can  hardly  have  any  claims  to  being  considered  American 
Folk-song,  Among  the  negroes  of  the  South,  during  the 
time  of  slavery,  a  type  of  song  developed  that  possesses  dis- 
tinctive qualities,  and  is  thoroughly  pervaded  with  the  emo- 
tional quality  which  characterizes  the  Folk-song  of  the  mu- 
sical races  of  Europe.  It  is  not  the  song  of  the  African  in 
his  native  land,  but  the  product  of  his  new  environment. 
Particularly  is  this  the  case  with  regard  to  the  songs  in 
which  the  religious  element  is  the  leading  one.  Many  of 
them  have  the  spontaneous  character  of  the  old  minstrel 
poets,  the  leader  improvising  the  verses,  the  chorus  joining 
in  the  refrain.  Several  composers  have  used  material  based 
on  negro  musical  idioms,  notably  Antonin  Dvorak,  in  his 
"From  the  New  World"  symphony  and  G.  W.  Chadwick,  in 
the  scherzo  of  one  of  his  symphonies,  but  the  most  famous 
examples  of  the  Folk-song  of  the  plantation  type  are  found 
in  the  works  of  Stephen  C.  Foster  (1826-1864),  the  one 
most  widely-known  being  "The  Old  Folks  at  Home"  or 
"Suwanee  River,"  incomparable  in  its  sweet  melancholy 
and  tender  pathos,  yet  of  extreme  simplicity  in  harmonic 
basis  and  diatonic  progressions. 


532  TH!-.    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

The  Opera. — T'.a  development  of  the  opera  in  the  United 
States  is  a  sto'.  y  of  change  from  the  simple  style  of  the 
English  balla-'i  opera  to  the  elaborate  music  dramas  of 
Richard  Wagner,  in  the  North,  with  New  York  City  as 
the  leading-  centre,  while  New  Orleans,  in  the  South,  with 
its  large  French  population,  furnishes  a  home  for  the  French 
and  Italian  school  of  opera.  The  "Beggar's  Opera,"  by 
Gay,  which  had  won  extraordinary  popularity  in  England, 
was  gi.ven  in  New  York,  in  1750,  and  as  early  as  1791  New 
Orleans  had  a  company  of  French  singers.  Philadelphia 
also  had  performances  before  the  end  of  the  i8th  century. 
It  was  not  until  after  the  wars  with  England,  when  the 
country  was  growing  and  becoming  prosperous,  that  foreign 
managers  and  singers  considered  it  an  inviting  field.  The 
first  company  of  real  artistic  worth  was  brought  here  in 
1825,  headed  by  Manuel  Garcia,  which  included  his 
daughter,  afterward  Mme.  Alalibran.  In  1832,  the  poet 
Da  Fonte,  librettist  of  Mozart's  opera  "Don  Giovanni,"  who 
was  a  resident  of  New  York  City,  brought  another  strong 
company  of  singers  to  the  United  States.  From  that  time 
on,  for  a  number  of  years,  opera  was  furnished  by  visiting 
companies  of  foreign  singers,  who  gave  performances  in 
the  leading  cities  of  the  country,  New  Orleans  being  the 
first  to  establish  a  permanent  opera  season  with  a  resident 
company.  It  was  in  1859  that  Adelina  Patti  made  her  first 
appearance,  in  New  York  City.  In  1878,  Mapleson,  the  im- 
presario, commenced  the  "all  star"  system  that  developed  a 
taste  for  opera  by  giving  the  American  public  the  chance  to 
hear  the  best  singers  in  the  world,  and  set  a  standard  which 
has  made  the  people  dissatisfied  with  a  company  well-bal- 
anced but  lacking  in  great  singers.  More  real  work  is  done 
to  develop  a  community  by  hearing  a  number  of  perfor- 
mances well  done  than  one  or  two  in  a  sensational  style. 
In  1883,  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  in  New  York  City, 
was  opened  with  a  "star"  company,  managed  by  Henry  E. 
Abbey.  German  opera  (Wagner  music  dramas)  gained  a 
foothold  in  this  country  through  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Leopold 
Damrosch,  who  directed  the  first  artistic  performance  of 


LESSON    HELPS.  533 

Wagner's  Tannhauser,  in  1884,  in  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House;  from  this  time,  operas  of  the  three  great  schools 
were  given  here,  Italian,  French  and  German.  The  follow- 
ing year,  Anton  Seidl  was  called  to  the  conductorship  and 
his  labors  put  the  performances  of  Wagner's  operas  on  a 
plane  equal  to  any  in  the  world;  the  company  had  seasons 
in  the  other  leading  American  cities.  After  Seidl's  death, 
in  1898,  the  performances  continued  along  the  same  lines 
and  with  the  same  high  artistic  quality,  the  greatest  singers 
being  engaged.  In  1903,  on  Christmas  Eve  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Mr.  H.  Conried,  the  first  American  representation 
(and  the  first  outside  of  Bayreuth)  of  "Paisifal"  was  given. 
In  assigning  credit  for  work  of  an  educational  character 
in  opera,  mention  must  be  made  of  certai  1  traveling  com- 
panies, such  as  the  "Ideals"  and  "Bostonians"  who  gave 
highly  artistic  performances  of  the  standard  operas,  and 
of  the  companies  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Henry  W. 
Savage,  who  gave  grand  opera  in  English  during  the  first 
decade  of  the  present  century. 

References. 

Mathews. — Hundred  Years  of  Music  in  America. 
Elson. — American  Music. 
Elson. — Our  National  Music  and  its  Sources 
Ritter. — Music  in  America. 
Brooks. — Olden  Time  Music. 

Perkins  and  Dwight. — Handel  and  Haydn  Society  of 
Boston. 

Questions  and  Suggestions. 

Who  contributed  the  greater  influence  to  American  music, 
the  CavaHers  or  the  Puritans? 

What  was  the  influence  of  the  latter? 

Who  were  the  early  hymn-tune  composers?  Name  some 
tune  by  the  more  prominent.  (If  any  are  available,  play 
them  over  or  have  them  sung  for  the  class.) 

Which  of  the  three  leading  American  cities  of  the  i8th 
century  was  the  most  advanced  musically? 


534  THE    HISTORY  OP    MUSIC. 

What  were  the  first  societies  to  organize? 

Who  was  a  great  factor  in  musical  education  in  tlie  early 
part  of  the  19th  century? 

What  was  the  state  of  instrumental  music  in  the  Colonial 
period  and  in  the  years  following? 

Where  was  the  first  orchestra  formed  ?  What  other  cities 
had  organized  bodies  of  orchestral  players? 

Give  an  account  of  the  work  of  Theodore  Thomas. 

Tell  about  the  other  great  orchestras  of  the  United  States. 

What  other  organizations  have  aided  in  musical  progress 
in  the  United  States? 

What  are  the  sources  of  Folk-Music  in  the  United  States  ? 
What  use  have  composers  made  of  this  material? 

Give  a  sketch  of  the  Opera  in  the  United  States. 

We  advise  that  a  somewhat  detailed  study  of  music  in 
the  United  States  be  made,  following  the  outline  of  this 
lesson,  by  the  use  of  the  reference  works  mentioned  above. 
If  there  is  time  for  this  extra  work,  we  advise  that  two 
lessons  be  made  of  this  chapter  and  that  pupils  be  assigned 
the  duty  of  collecting  additional  material  on  the  subject 
of  the  separate  paragraphs.  The  work  will  be  divided  in 
this  way  and  each  pupil  will  have  a  personal  interest.  Old 
hymn-tune  collections  should  be  examined  to  find  examples 
of  the  tunes  used  by  our  forefathers.  Music  representative 
of  the  various  periods  will  be  found  in  the  books  mentioned 
or  indicated  in  other  sources ;  both  vocal  and  instrumental 
music  should  be  performed  at  the  recitations. 


LESSON  LVIII. 

American  Comtosers:    Works  in  Large  Instrumental 

Forms. 

American  Music  Still  Young. — Musical  composition  in 
the  United  States  is  still  too  young  in  comparison  with  the 
work  of  European  composers  to  have  made  marked  im- 
press on  history.  American  composers  owe  their  training 
largely  to  European  teachers,  the  models  upon  which  they 
have  based  their  work  come  from  European  art,  and  the 
principles  of  construction  were  developed  by  the  European 
masters.  Hence  the  disposition  to  view  American  composi- 
tion as  still  in  a  state  of  pupilage.  Yet  the  record  shows  a 
number  of  men  who  have  done  worthy  work,  many  of  them 
winning  far  more  than  a  local  reputation,  and  not  a  few 
enjoying  international  fame.  And  this  work,  especially  such 
as  is  cast  in  the  large  forms,  for  orchestra,  chamber-music 
or  chorus  with  orchestra,  is  the  product  of  the  years  since 
the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  a  very  short  period,  indeed, 
when  compared  with  the  story  of  composition  in  most  of 
the  European  countries.  It  speaks  volumes  for  the  native 
capacity  and  sturdy  industry  of  American  composers  that 
they  have,  in  less  than  a  half-century,  won  a  high  place  in 
the  use  of  the  materials  of  musical  composition  and  that 
they  have  so  readily  assimilated  the  work  and  teachings  of 
European  masters. 

Paine. — The  earliest  composer  in  large  instrumental  forms 
was  John  K.  Paine,  born,  Portland,  Me.,  1834,  died  1906. 
In  1858,  he  went  to  Germany  to  study  and  gave  particular 
attention  to  the  organ.  He  quickly  gained  rank  as  the 
chief  American  organist,  on  his  return  to  the  United  States, 
several  years  later.  In  1862,  he  became  connected  with 
Harvard  University  as  an  instructor  in  music,  a  full  pro- 
fessorship being  created  in  1875.    His  first  important  works 

(535) 


536  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

were  choral,  with  orchestral  accompaniment.  His  first  sym- 
phony was  brought  out  in  1876,  his  second,  called  "Spring," 
in  1880.  Other  large  works  for  orchestra  are  a  symphonic 
fantasy  based  on  Shakespeare's  "Tempest,"  a  symphonic 
poem  "An  Island  Fantasy,"  the  inspiration  of  which  came 
from  several  paintings  of  marine  scenes,  and  an  overture 
to  Shakespeare's  "As  You  Like  It."  Prof.  Paine's  large 
choral  works  are:  a  Mass  in  D,  an  oratorio  "St.  Peter," 
music  to  "CEdipus  Tyrannus,"  "Phoebus,  Arise,"  "Nativity," 
drawn  from  Milton,  "Song  of  Promise,"  hymns  for  the 
Centennial  and  Columbus  Exhibitions,  music  to  Aristoph- 
anes' "Birds,"  an  opera  "Azara,"  besides  organ  compositions, 
chamber-music,  songs  and  part-songs. 

Gilchrist.  —  A  composer  whose  training  was  entirely 
American  is  William  W.  Gilchrist,  born  in  Jersey  City,  in 
1846,  a  resident  of  Philadelphia  for  many  years,  where  his 
professional  activity  has  included  important  work  as  teacher 
of  singing,  and  chorus  conducting.  His  musical  education 
was  received  mainly  from  Dr.  H.  A.  Clarke,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  His  compositions  include  a  sym- 
phony, a  suite  for  orchestra  and  a  great  deal  of  chamber- 
music.  He  has  written  a  number  of  works  for  chorus  with 
orchestra,  his  most  notable  being  a  setting  of  the  Forty-sixth 
Psalm,  to  which  was  awarded  a  $1000  prize,  offered  by 
the  Cincinnati  Festival  Association.  His  other  compositions 
include  choral  works  in  smaller  forms,  with  string  or  other 
accompaniment  suited  to  chamber-music,  part-songs,  church 
music,  and  a  number  of  fine  songs.  He  is  especially  happy 
in  writing  for  women's  voices. 

Chadwick. — A  composer  who  has  won  appreciation  in 
Europe  is  George  W.  Chadwick,  born  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  in 
1854.  His  studies  were  carried  on  in  the  New  England 
Conservatory,  at  Boston,  which  institution  he  entered  in 
1872.  Five  years  later  he  went  to  Leipzig  to  study,  giving 
special  attention  to  composition.  In  1879,  he  went  to 
Dresden  to  study  with  Rheinberger.  In  1880,  he  returned 
to  the  United  States  and  settled  in  Boston.  His  profes- 
sional activities  included  work  as  organist,  conductor,  and 


W,   W.   GiLCHEIST. 

Aethue  Foote. 


J.  K.  Paine. 
Edwaed  Mao  Do  well. 


HoEATio  Paekeb. 
Mes.  H.  H.  a.  Beach. 
G.  W.  Chadwtck. 


538  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

teacher  at  the  New  England  Conservatory.  In  1897,  he 
was  called  to  the  directorship  of  the  Conservatory.  Kis 
compositions  are  written  in  all  the  various  forms,  his  repu- 
tation as  a  composer  of  high  rank  being  based  upon  his 
large  orchestral  works,  which  include  three  symphonies, 
four  overtures,  chamber-music,  a  comic  opera,  a  sacred 
opera,  "Judith,"  two  cantatas,  popular  with  choral  societies, 
"Phoenix  Expirans"  and  the  "Lily  Nymph,"  a  ballad  for 
chorus  and  orchestra,  "Lovely  Rosabelle,"  part-songs, 
church  music,  and  a  number  of  songs  of  high  merit. 

MacDowell. — An  American  composer  in  thorough  accord 
with  the  modern  musical  tendencies  in  composition  is  Ed- 
ward Alexander  MacDowell.  born  in  New  York,  in  1861 
(died  in  1900).  His  teacher  was  Mme.  Teresa  Carreno,  the 
celebrated  pianist.  He  became  a  pupil  of  the  Paris  Conser- 
vatoire, in  1876,  and  after  three  years  under  French  mas- 
ters and  influences,  went  to  Germany,  where  he  studied 
under  Ehlert,  Heymann  and  Raff,  the  latter  giving  him 
a  thorough  grounding  in  the  technic  of  composition.  His 
musical  education,  therefore,  included  both  French  and 
German  ideas.  He  remained  in  Germany  as  pianist,  com- 
poser and  teacher  until  1888,  when  he  returned  to  the  United 
States  and  settled  in  Boston.  In  1896,  he  accepted  the  posi- 
tion of  professor  of  music  in  Columbia  University,  New 
York  City,  which  he  held  until  1904,  when  he  resigned  to 
devote  himself  to  composition  exclusively.  MacDowell  was 
trained  to  a  thorough  understanding  of  form,  yet  his  works 
show  that  he  regards  only  the  spirit  of  form,  that  he  is  its 
master  and  not  its  servant.  He  has  plenty  of  force,  vigor 
and  originality  of  melody  and  rhythm  and  is  resourceful  in 
his  command  of  modern  harmony.  Critics  of  high  au- 
thority have  unhesitatingly  awarded  him  the  highest  rank 
among  American-born  composers.  His  compositions  in- 
clude works  in  the  large  forms,  two  concertos,  two  suites, 
four  poems  for  orchestra,  four  piano  sonatas  of  striking 
romantic  content,  a  number  of  smaller  works  for  the  piano, 
studies,  songs  and  part-songs,  principally  for  male  voices. 


HORATIO    PARKER.  539 

Horatio  Parker. — It  is  significant  of  the  advance  in  music 
over  other  sections  of  the  United  States  that  New  England 
should  have  been  the  birthplace  of  a  number  of  composers 
of  reputation.  Besides  Paine  and  Chadwick,  two  others 
have  achieved  eminence  in  the  large  forms :  Horatio  Parker 
and  Arthur  Foote.  Mr.  Parker  was  born  near  Boston,  in 
1863 ;  his  father  was  an  architect,  his  mother  a  woman  of 
fine  literary  and  musical  culture.  His  first  lessons  in  music, 
piano  and  organ,  were  received  from  his  mother,  and  such 
was  his  interest  that  he  made  attempts  at  composition.  At 
sixteen,  he  was  appointed  to  a  position  as  organist  and  was 
thus  launched  into  musical  life.  He  kept  up  his  studies  with 
Boston  teachers,  in  composition  with  Chadwick,  and  after- 
wards with  Rheinberger,  in  Germany,  in  which  country  he 
remained  until  1885.  His  first  appointment  was  director 
of  music  at  Garden  City  Cathedral  Schools,  Long  Island, 
afterwards  filling  organ  positions  in  New  York  City,  the 
most  notable  one  being  at  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 
He  also  taught  in  the  National  Conservatory.  In  1893,  he 
went  to  Boston  as  organist  and  director  of  music  at  Trinity 
Church,  and  in  1894,  to  Yale  University,  as  professor  of 
music.  In  addition  to  the  work  in  composition  and  history 
of  music,  Mr.  Parker  conducts  a  series  of  orchestral  con- 
certs given  by  an  orchestra  supported  by  the  University. 
Mr.  Parker's  compositions  in  large  form  include  a  sym- 
phony, several  overtures,  a  concerto  for  organ  and  orches- 
tra, chamber-music,  cantatas  for  chorus  and  orchestra,  and 
in  smaller  forms,  piano  and  organ  pieces,  songs  and  many 
part-songs.  His  cantata  "Hora  Novissima"  is  one  of  the 
best  works  in  this  style  produced  by  an  American  composer, 
and  has  been  given  in  England  with  success.  The  legend 
of  "St.  Christopher"  furnished  material  for  a  work  of  a 
secular  character  that  has  been  taken  up  by  some  impor- 
tant choral  organizations. 

Arthur  Foote  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1854.  His 
musical  education  was  wholly  acquired  in  Boston,  his  lead- 
ing teachers  having  been  Stephen  A.  Emery  and  B.  J.  Lang. 
Mr.  Foote  is  also  a  graduate  of  Harvard  University.    His 


540  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

home  is  in  Boston,  where  his  professional  work  is  that  of 
an  organist,  and  teacher  of  piano  and  composition.  His 
most  important  work  in  large  form  is  a  snite  for  orchestra, 
Op.  36;  in  addition  to  this  he  has  written  successfully  in 
the  domain  of  chamber-music,  works  for  string  orchestra, 
a  quartet,  a  quintet,  a  trio  and  a  sonata  for  piano  and 
violin ;  he  has  also  written  excellent  works  for  chorus  with 
orchestra,  "Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,"  piano  and  organ 
pieces,  a  number  of  fine  songs  and  part-songs.  He  is  per- 
haps at  his  best  in  writing  for  male  voices,  notable  works 
being  "The  Skeleton  in  Armor"  and  "Farewell  to  Hia- 
watha." 

Hadley. — A  younger  composer  than  those  mentioned, 
whose  work  in  the  large  forms  has  received  commendation, 
is  Henry  K.  Hadley,  born  at  Somerville,  Mass.,  in  1871. 
His  father  was  a  member  of  the  musical  profession,  and 
first  taught  his  son,  who  later  went  to  Boston  to  study  with 
Emery,  Chadwick  and  Allen  (violin).  In  1894,  he  went  to 
Vienna  to  study  and  wrote  several  works  for  orchestra  while 
there.  In  1896,  he  returned  to  the  United  States  and  taught 
in  St.  Paul's  School,  at  Garden  City.  He  has  written  sev- 
eral symphonies,  suites,  an  overture,  a  cantata  and  a  num- 
ber of  songs ;  two  comic  operas  are  also  among  his  works. 
In  1910  in  Seattle  as  conductor  of  Symphony  Orchestra. 

Frank  van  der  Stucken,  born  in  Fredericksburg,  Texas, 
in  1858,  of  Belgian  descent,  was  educated  abroad,  mainly 
under  Benoit,  at  Antwerp,  and  entered  professional  life 
in  Europe,  yet  he  is  classed  with  American  composers,  for 
he  has  spent  a  great  part  of  his  active  musical  life  in  this 
country.  It  was  in  1884,  that  he  came  to  New  York  City 
as  conductor  of  a  large  German  singing  society,  at  the 
same  time  giving  much  attention  to  conducting  orchestral 
works,  in  which  branch  he  had  had  considerable  experience 
in  Europe.  In  1895,  he  went  to  Cincinnati  as  conductor 
of  the  Symphony  Orchestra  of  that  city  and  two  years  later, 
was  dean  of  the  College  of  Music,  from  the  active  manage- 
ment of  which  he  retired  in  1903.  Although  he  has  written 
a  number  of  orchestral  pieces,  his  most  important  work, 


MRS.    BEACH.  541 

modern  in  form  and  scored  for  the  full  modern  orchestra 
is  "William  Ratcliffe,"  a  symphonic  prologue,  which  has 
a  very  dramatic  program.  He  has  also  written  songs  that 
are  in  the  extreme  style  of  the  most  advanced  composition. 

Mrs.  Beach. — Few  women  have  won  any  success  in  com- 
position in  the  large  musical  forms.  A  most  notable  excep- 
tion is  Mrs.  H.  H.  A.  Beach  (Amy  Marcy  Cheney),  who 
was  born  at  Henniker,  N.  H.,  in  1867.  She  showed  marked 
inclination  for  music  while  still  a  child  and  was  given 
regular  instruction  when  only  six  years  old.  Soon  after 
this  her  parents  moved  to  Boston  and  she  continued  her 
musical  education  there  under  Ernst  Perabo  and  Carl  Baer- 
mann.  Her  studies  in  composition  were  largely  made  with- 
out teachers,  guided  principally  by  the  most  thorough  and 
extensive  study  of  the  scores  of  the  masters.  She  was 
married  in  1885  to  a  prominent  Boston  physician.  Mrs. 
Beach's  most  important  works  are  her  "Gaelic"  symphony, 
a  mass  for  chorus  with  organ  and  small  orchestra,  a  sonata 
for  violin  and  piano  and  a  piano  concerto.  In  addition  to 
this  she  has  written  a  number  of  piano  pieces  and  songs. 

Loeffler. — An  account  of  music  in  the  United  States  would 
not  be  complete  without  reference  to  the  work  of  Mr. 
Charles  M.  Loeffler,  one  of  the  most  important  figures  in 
modern  musical  composition.  Although  he  was  born  in 
Europe  (1861)  and  educated  there,  he  has  spent  his  adult 
life  in  this  country,  having  been  for  many  years  a  violinist 
in  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra.  His  best-known  work 
is  the  "Death  of  Tintagiles,"  founded  upon  Maeterlinck. 
Rollinat  and  Verlaine  have  also  furnished  inspiration  to 
him.  A  concerted  work  for  violin  and  orchestra  shows  his 
skill  both  as  composer  and  violinist.  Of  late  years,  Mr„ 
Loeffler  has  turned  his  attention  to  song  and  chamber  music. 

Other  Composers. — In  a  concise  account  of  the  work  of 
American  composers,  short  mention  only  can  be  given  to  a 
number  of  men  who  have  worked  earnestly  in  composition, 
a  field  in  which  appreciation  seems  to  be  granted  freely  to 
the  foreigner  but  grudgingly  to  the  compatriot.  Condi- 
tions are  not  favorable  to  development  along  the  lines  of 


542  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

public  performance  of  works  in  large  forms,  orchestras  are 
under  the  control  of  foreign  conductors,  most  of  the  players 
are  foreigners,  and  the  concert-going  public  gives  but  scant 
attention  to  works  by  an  American.  Therefore  much  credit 
is  due  to  those  who  have  worked  quietly  and  with  but  little 
hope  of  hearing  their  works,  doing  their  best  to  produce 
music  in  accord  with  the  best  canons  of  the  art.  Such  men 
are  Frederick  Grant  Gleason,  born  at  Middletown,  Conn., 
1848  (died  in  Chicago,  1903),  studied  at  home  and  abroad; 
Adolph  M.  Foerster,  born  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  1854,  who  was 
educated  in  Germany,  and  is  now  a  resident  of  his  native 
city;  Ernest  E.  Kroeger,  born  at  St.  Louis,  1862,  educated 
at  home,  and  still  a  resident  of  the  city  of  his  birth ;  Henry 
Schoenefeld,  born  at  Milwaukee,  1857,  educated  at  home 
and  abroad ;  Henry  Holden  Hnss,  born  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  in 
1862,  studied  in  New  York  and  at  Munich,  under  Rhein- 
berger,  now  a  resident  of  New  York  City ;  Arthur  B.  Whit- 
ing, born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1861,  educated  in  Boston 
and  by  Rheinberger,  at  Munich,  a  resident  of  Boston; 
Louis  A.  Coeme,  professor  of  music  at  Smith  College  ( 1903- 
1907)  ;  educated  in  Boston  and  Munich  (Rheinberger)  ;  and 
Harry  Rowe  Shelley,  of  New  York  City,  who  was  born  at 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  1858,  studied  there  and  in  New  York 
(Buck  and  Dvofak).  These  composers  have  by  no  means 
confined  their  work  to  compositions  for  orchestra,  chamber- 
music,  cantatas,  etc.,  but  have  aiso  written  useful  piano  and 
organ  pieces,  and  in  a  number  of  cases,  songs  that  have 
become  extremely  popular. 


LESSON  LIX. 

American  Composers:   Vocal  Forms;   Piano  and 
Organ. — Musical  Literature. 

Cantata  Composers. — A  number  of  American  composers 
have  turned  their  attention  to  composition  in  opera  and 
cantata  forms.  Some  of  the  composers  already  mentioned 
have  written  works  of  this  character.  The  first  of  Ameri- 
can composers  to  work  in  the  field  of  the  cantata  was 
J.  C.  D.  Parker,  born  in  Boston,  in  1828,  a  graduate  of 
Harvard,  and  a  teacher  with  many  years  of  splendid  work 
to  his  credit.  His  musical  education  was  received  at  Leipzig. 
In  1854,  he  located  in  Boston  and  took  up  a  varied  career 
as  organist,  conductor,  and  teacher  of  piano  and  harmony, 
at  the  New  England  Conservatory.  His  large  works  in- 
clude a  cantata,  "Redemption  Hymn,"  a  secular  cantata, 
"The  Blind  King,"  and  two  works  in  oratorio  form  "St. 
John"  and  "The  Life  of  Man,"  the  latter  showing  him  at 
his  strongest.  Dudley  Buck,  organist,  composer  and  teacher, 
is  also  one  of  the  veterans  of  American  music.  He  was 
born  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1839,  attended  Trinity  College 
(died  1909),  began  his  musical  instruction  at  sixteen  years 
of  age,  went  to  Germany  several  years  later,  giving  his 
attention  principally  to  the  organ  and  composition.  In  1862, 
he  returned  to  the  United  States,  worked  professionally  in 
Hartford,  Chicago,  and  Boston;  in  1874,  he  went  to  New 
York,  later  to  one  of  the  leading  churches  of  Brooklyn, 
which  position  he  retained  until  1905.  His  choral  works 
in  large  form  are  "Don  Munio,"  "The  Voyage  of  Colum- 
bus," "The  Golden  Legend,"  and  the  "Light  of  Asia,"  his 
largest  and  most  important  work,  which  has  been  given  in 
England.  He  has  written  many  works  for  church  use,  much 
organ  music,  songs  and  concerted  vocal  music,  especially 
for  male  voices. 

(543) 


544  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

Opera. — In  opera  we  note  the  work  of  Paine  ("Azara")  ; 
Chadwick  ("J"tlitli,"  a  sacred  opera)  ;  Walter  Damrosch, 
composer  and  conductor,  born  in  Germany,  in  1862,  bnt  a 
resident  of  the  United  States  in  childhood,  and  hence  iden- 
tified with  music  in  this  country,  who  has  written  a  work 
of  serious  character  to  a  hbretto  founded  on  Haw'thorne's 
"Scarlet  Letter";  Reginald  dc  Koven,  born  at  Middletown, 
Conn.,  in  1859,  with  a  list  of  several  successful  light  operas 
to  his  credit,  as  well  as  many  songs  which  have  had  wide 
appreciation ;  Edgar  Stillman  Kelley,  born  at  Sparta,  Wis- 
consin, in  1857,  educated  in  Chicago  and  Germany,  a  resi- 
dent of  San  Francisco  for  a  number  of  years,  where  he 
brought  out  several  notable  works  of  a  popular  character 
for  the  stage  as  well  as  the  orchestra,  employing  in  the 
latter  Chinese  musical  idioms  with  success  in  a  humorous 
direction.  A  composer  whose  work  in  light  opera  has  had 
much  success  is  Victor  Herbert,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland. 
His  professional  career  has  been  largely  spent  in  this 
country,  his  work  as  conductor  of  the  Pittsburgh  Symphony 
Orchestra  being  notable. 

Song  Composition.  —  In  the  field  of  song  composition, 
American  composers  have  done  very  good  work.  The 
American  seems  to  turn  naturally  to  song  and  few  of  the 
most  prominent  of  the  native  composers  have  neglected 
this  field,  as  will  have  been  noticed  in  previous  paragraphs. 
Among  those  who  have  won  high  reputation  in  this  line  we 
note  George  L.  Osgood,  of  Boston,  born  in  1844,  composer, 
singer  and  teacher ;  Frank  Lynes,  of  Boston,  born  in  1858, 
who  has  also  written  good  concerted  vocal  music  and  piano 
pieces;  Clayton  Johns,  born  in  Delaware,  in  1857,  but  a 
resident  of  Boston  during  the  greater  part  of  his  profes- 
sional career,  with  a  long  list  of  part-songs  and  some  piano 
pieces  to  his  credit;  and  Ethelbert  Nevin,  born  near  Pitts- 
i.urgh,  in  1862,  educated  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe, 
whose  songs  have  a  truly  poetic  character  joined  to  music 
of  a  high  order ;  a  number  of  his  piano  pieces  have  also 
been  most  favorably  received.    He  died  in  1901. 


Wm.  Mason,  L.  M.  Gottschalk.  Dudley  Buck. 

H.  M.  Dunham.  J.  C.  D.  Pabkeb.  B.  J.  Lang. 

Wallace  Goodeich. 


546  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

Piano  Composition. — The  dean  of  American  teachers  of 
the  piano  and  of  composers  for  that  instrument  is  William 
Mason,  born  in  Boston,  in  1829  (died  1908),  a  son  of  Low- 
ell Mason,  who  studied  at  home  and  abroad  and  spent  two 
years  with  Liszt.  It  was  in  1854  that  he  came  back  to  the 
United  States  and  located  in  New  York  City.  In  addition 
to  his  works  for  the  piano,  some  of  which  have  been  widely 
played,  he  was  the  author  of  an  important  technical  work, 
which  stamps  him  as  an  educator  of  originahty  and  strength. 
A  composer  who  is  generally  classed  as  American,  although 
his  ancestry,  education  and  environment  incline  strongly  to 
the  French,  is  Louis  Morean  Gottschalk,  born  in  New  Or- 
leans, in  1829.  He  early  showed  marked  inclination  for 
music  and  was  sent  to  Paris  to  study.  His  first  reputation 
was  won  as  pianist.  He  traveled  over  Europe,  the  United 
States  and  parts  of  South  America,  giving  concerts,  in 
which  he  gave  the  principal  place  to  his  own  compositions. 
He  died  in  Brazil,  in  1869.  In  later  years,  American  com- 
posers for  the  piano  have  not  done  such  distinctive  work  as 
the  two  writers  just  mentioned,  yet  the  names  of  Charles 
Dennee  (1863),  Wilson  G.  Smith  (1855),  James  H.  Rogers 
(1857),  and  William  H.  Sherwood  (1854),  composer,  pianist 
and  teacher,  whose  work  in  the  educational  field  is  most 
important;  Edward  Baxter  Perry  (1855),  who  has  splen- 
didly triumphed  over  the  infirmity  of  blindness,  and  through 
his  unique  lecture  recitals  has  been  a  strong  factor  in  mu- 
sical progress  in  the  United  States ;  and  several  men  of  for- 
eign birth  who  have  identified  themselves  with  American 
musical  education :  Rafael  Joseffy,  in  New  York  City,  Carl 
Baermann  and  Carl  Faelten  in  Boston,  Constantin  von  Stem- 
berg  in  Philadelphia,  and  Emil  Liebling  in  Chicago.  Two 
other  names  should  be  mentioned  here,  Henry  Schradieck,  of 
New  York,  whose  influence  as  a  violinist  and  teacher  has 
been  great,  and  F.  L.  Ritter,  who  occupied  the  chair  of 
music  in  Vassar  College,  a  pioneer  in  college  musical  work. 

Organ  Composition. — Nearly  all  of  the  best-known  Ameri- 
can composers  have  been  organists,  yet  certain  men  have 
made  that  line  of  musical  work  peculiarly  their  own.    Such 


MUSICAL   CRITICISM.  547 

men  are  B.  J.  Lang  (i837-icxx)),of  Boston, organist,  conduc- 
tor and  teacher;  George  E.  Whiting  (1842),  who  in  addition 
to  his  high  rank  as  an  organist  and  teacher,  has  written 
most  acceptably  for  his  instrument,  and  also  for  the  or- 
chestra and  in  the  large  choral  forms;  George  W.  Warren 
(1828),  and  S.  P.  Warren  (1841),  whose  sphere  of  activity 
is  identified  with  New  York  City;  E.  M.  Bowman  (1848), 
organist,  conductor,  pianist  and  teacher ;  Samuel  B.  Whitney 
(1842),  organist,  noted  for  his  work  in  training  boy  choirs, 
also  his  musical  compositions  for  the  Episcopal  Church 
service;  Clarence  Eddy  (1851),  organ  virtuoso  with  an  in- 
ternational reputation;  Henry  M.  Dunham  (1853),  who  has 
written  well  for  his  instrument  and  has  had  an  active  and 
useful  career  as  a  teacher.  Among  the  younger  men  of 
prominence  as  American  organists  who  have  put  them- 
selves abreast  with  modern  progress,  and  have  studied  all 
schools,  may  be  mentioned  Everett  E.  Truette,  Wallace 
Goodrich,  Wm.  C.  Carl,  Gerrit  Smith,  Charles  Galloway, 
J.  Fred  Wolle,  who  organized  the  Bach  Festival  at  Bethle- 
hem, Pa.,  H.  J.  Stewart,  a  representative  California  organist. 

Musical  Criticism. — When  indicating  the  various  agencies 
for  the  shaping  of  musical  appreciation  in  the  United  States, 
special  mention  must  be  made  of  a  group  of  writers  whose 
contributions  to  musical  magazines,  to  the  daily  press  in 
the  large  music  centres,  as  well  as  their  work  in  permanent 
form  have  influenced  the  taste  of  the  American  public  to  a 
degree  not  paralleled  in  any  other  country.  These  writers 
have  enjoyed  unusual  opportunities  and  have  used  them 
well.  The  leading  newspapers  of  the  United  States  give 
much  space  to  reports  of  musical  events  and  have  called  to 
their  aid  writers  of  keen  insight  into  musical  matters,  thor- 
ough equipment  on  the  score  of  musical  knowledge,  and 
gifted  with  much  skill  in  expression  as  well  as  mastery  of 
literary  style. 

The  Older  Critics. — The  first  of  these  critics  to  claim  our 
attention  is  John  S.  Dwight,  born  in  Boston,  in  18 13,  a 
graduate  of  Harvard,  and  a  student  of  theology  as  well. 
Gifted  with  a  sound  taste  in  art  matters,  his  reviews  of 


548  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

musical  works,  concerts,  etc.,  were  very  useful  and  help- 
ful and  much  appreciated  by  the  best  circles  of  the  city,  for 
his  associations  were  with  the  most  famous  literary  and 
scientific  men  of  his  day.  In  1852,  he  established  a  musical 
paper,  Journal  of  Music,  w^hich  lasted  nearly  thirty  years. 
He  died  in  1893.  Another  of  the  older  writers  is  George  P. 
Upton,  born  in  Boston,  in  1834,  a  graduate  of  Brown  Uni- 
versity, who  entered  journalism  at  twenty-one,  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  staff  of  the  Chicago  Journal;  after  some  years 
of  service  with  that  paper,  he  went  to  the  Tribune,  with 
which  he  has  ever  since  been  associated.  Mr.  Upton's  crit- 
ical work  covers  the  period  of  the  growth  of  Chicago, 
which  has  been  phenomenal  in  art  as  well  as  in  commercial 
directions,  and  has  been  a  most  valuable  factor  in  musical 
upbuilding.  In  recent  years  his  pen  was  a  great  aid  to 
Theodore  Thomas  in  his  efforts  to  establish  the  Chicago 
Symphony  Orchestra.  His  works  in  permanent  form  are 
"Woman  in  Music,"  a  series  of  books  descriptive  of  the 
principal  oratorios,  operas,  cantatas,  and  symphonies,  trans- 
lations from  the  German  of  Nohl's  biographies  of  musicians, 
and  a  "Life  of  Theodore  Thomas."  Coincident  with  Mr. 
Upton's  work  in  the  West  is  that  of  W.  S.  B.  Mathews, 
born  in  London,  N.  H.,  in  1837.  He  was  educated  in  Bos- 
ton ;  after  some  years  of  musical  work  in  the  South,  he 
located  in  Chicago,  as  organist,  teacher,  writer  on  musical 
matters.  His  reviews  on  local  musical  affairs  appeared  in 
several  of  the  leading  dailies,  he  was  a  contributor  to 
Dwight's  Journal,  and  to  all  the  musical  papers  that  have 
come  into  the  field  since.  Perhaps  no  contemporary  writer 
on  education  in  music  has  influenced,  and  so  strongly,  as 
many  teachers  and  students  of  music  as  Mr.  Mathews. 
He  has  written  a  "Popular  History  of  Music,"  "Hundred 
Years  of  Music  in  America,"  "How  to  Understand  Music," 
"Primer  of  Musical  Forms,"  and  several  works  on  the 
great  composers,  with  critical  studies  of  their  works. 

Boston  Writers. — The  three  leading  Boston  writers  of  re- 
cent years  are  Louis  C.  Elson,  Wm.  F.  Apthorp  and  Philip 
Hale.    Louis  C.  Elson  was  born  in  Boston,  in  1848.    He  was 


W.  S.  B.  Mathews. 
H.  E.  Kbehbiej- 


G.  P.  Upton. 
Philip  Hat.f- 


L.  C.  Elson. 
-V.  F.  Apthokp. 
James  Hunekeb. 


550  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

educated  for  the  musical  profession,  at  home  and  at  Leipzig. 
In  1880,  he  became  connected  with  the  New  England  Con- 
servatory, and  at  the  present  time  is  head  of  the  theory  de- 
partment of  that  institution.  His  journalistic  activity  covers 
a  period  of  about  thirty  years  and  his  writings  have  ap- 
peared in  Boston  and  New  York  papers,  as  well  as  in  the 
leading  musical  journals.  His  works  in  book  form  are 
ten  in  number,  the  most  valuable  to  the  student  of  history 
being  a  large  volume  on  the  "History  of  American  Music." 
The  other  works  are  critical,  technical,  and  biographical, 
Wm.  F.  Apthorp  was  born  in  Boston,  in  1848,  graduated 
at  Harvard,  and  began  his  critical  work  in  music  in  1872, 
being  connected  with  several  Boston  papers.  Mr.  Apthorp's 
published  works  are  few  in  number,  "Musicians  and  Music 
Lovers"  and  "The  Opera,  Past  and  Present."  In  addition 
to  this  he  supplied  program  material  for  the  Boston  Sym- 
phony Concerts  for  a  number  of  years,  educational  as 
well  as  descriptive  and  critical.  Philip  Hale  was  born  at 
Norwich,  Vt.,  in  1854,  graduated  from  Yale  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Bar  in  New  York  in  1880.  His  interest  in 
music  and  musical  work  proved  too  strong  for  him  and  he 
went  abroad  to  Germany  and  France  to  study.  In  1889,  he 
located  in  Boston  and  began  work  as  musical  critic  on  the 
staff  of  several  of  the  papers.  For  a  number  of  years  he 
was  Boston  correspondent  for  the  Musical  Courier  of  New 
York.  Two  other  men  whose  work  in  musical  literature 
has  been  significant  are  Alexander  W.  Thayer,  born  at 
Natick,  Mass.,  in  1817  (died  1897),  who  wrote  the  standard 
biography  of  Beethoven,  and  Thomas  Tapper,  who  has  writ- 
ten a  number  of  valuable  educational  works  in  music. 

New  York  Critics. — New  York  City  has  four  men  of  the 
first  rank  as  writers  on  music,  not  only  for  critical  acumen 
and  technical  knowledge,  but  also  for  literary  style.  Henry 
T.  Finck  was  born  in  Missouri,  in  1854,  graduated  from 
Harvard  University,  and  studied  at  German  universities 
for  three  years.  When  he  returned  to  the  United  States 
he  joined  the  editorial  staff  of  the  Evening  Post  and  the 
Nation,  which  places  he  still  holds.    His  works  in  musical 


MUSICAL    CRITICISM.  55I 

literature  are  "Wagner  and  His  Works,"  "Paderewski  and 
His  Art,"  "Songs  and  Song  Writers,"  and  "Chopin  and 
Other  Essays."  Henry  E.  Krehbiel  was  born  at  Ann  Arbor, 
Mich.,  in  1854.  His  first  newspaper  experience  was  in  Cin- 
cinnati ;  later  he  went  to  New  York  to  the  Tribune,  which 
place  he  still  holds.  His  contributions  to  musical  literature 
are  "Studies  in  the  Wagnerian  Drama,"  "How  to  Listen 
to  Music,"  and  "Music  and  Manners  in  the  Classical 
Period,"  besides  contributions  to  the  leading  musical  papers 
and  general  magazines,  William  J.  Henderson  was  born  at 
Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1855,  graduated  from  Princeton  Univer- 
sity, afterward  entering  journalism  in  New  York  City,  being 
connected  with  the  Times,  and  later  with  the  Sun.  His 
books  are  distinctly  educational  in  tone:  "The  Story  of 
Music,"  "How  Music  Developed,"  "What  is  Good  Music," 
"The  Orchestra  and  Orchestral  Music,"  "Richard  Wagner: 
His  Life  and  Dramas,"  and  "The  Art  of  the  Singer."  A 
writer  on  music  who  has  made  a  fine  reputation  in  literary 
and  dramatic  criticism  as  well  is  James  Huneker,  a  native  of 
Philadelphia,  whose  active  work  has  been  done  in  New  York 
City.  His  books  of  interest  to  the  musician  are  a  "Life  of 
Chopin,"  "Mezzotints  in  Modern  Music,"  "Melomaniacs." 
"Overtones,"  "Iconoclasts"  and  "Visionaries." 

Other  Writers  in  this  field  whose  work  deserves  mention 
are  Edward  Dickinson,  of  Oberlin,  O.,  with  two  works, 
"History  of  Music  in  the  Western  Church"  and  "The  Study 
of  the  History  of  Music";  Philip  Goepp,  of  Philadelphia, 
"Symphonies  and  their  Meanings";  Daniel  Gregory  Mason, 
of  Boston,  "From  Grieg  to  Brahms";  Lawrence  Gilman, 
of  New  York,  "Phases  of  Modern  Music";  Professor 
Hugh  A.  Clarke,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
"Music  and  the  Comrade  Arts,"  "Highways  and  By-ways 
of  Music,"  and  several  excellent  theoretical  works;  0.  B. 
Boise,  Peabody  Conservatory  of  Baltimore,  with  a  work  of 
a  historical  and  critical  nature,  "Music  and  Its  Masters," 
and  some  theoretical  works ;  Rupert  Hughes,  "Contemporary 
American  Composers." 


LESSON  LX. 

Musical  Education. 

Early  Musical  Education. — The  training  of  students  in 
music  has  been  the  special  care  of  the  greatest  men  con- 
nected with  the  art,  a  subject  close  to  the  heart  of  men  of 
rank  and  of  means,  and  the  object  of  Governmental  and 
municipal  subvention.  In  most  of  the  countries  and  many 
of  the  larger  cities  of  Europe,  Art  is  considered  a  legitimate 
object  for  public  aid  and  fostering,  and  music  receives  a 
fair  share  of  funds  set  aside  for  that  purpose.  In  the  period 
before  the  Christian  Era,  musical  education  was  carried  on 
to  prepare  singers  and  players  either  for  the  religious 
service,  and  in  the  hands  of  the  priests,  or  for  entertainment 
and  by  slaves.  Pope  Sylvester  founded  a  school  for  singers, 
at  Rome,  in  the  4th  century,  and  the  Church  all  through  its 
history  has  laid  stress  on  means  for  training  executants  for 
its  musical  services.  Guido  of  Arezzo,  credited  with  a  num- 
ber of  reforms  in  the  teaching  of  vocal  music,  is  said  to 
have  had  a  school  for  training  singers  to  read  musical  nota- 
tion. Like  him,  many  of  his  successors  in  prominence  were 
in  charge  of  classes  of  pupils,  yet  this  method  by  no  means 
accords  with  our  ideas  of  systematic,  logical  education  in 
music.  It  was  largely  the  personal  power  and  eminence  of 
the  master  that  attracted  and  retained  pupils. 

Musical  Education  in  Italy. — The  first  examples  of  the 
founding  of  schools  of  music  or  conservatories  take  us  to 
Italy.  The  noted  theorist  Tinctor  or  Tinctoris  started  a 
school  at  Naples,  in  1496,  but  this  did  not  last  very  long. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  i6th  century,  several  institutions 
were  founded  by  private  contribution  for  the  purpose  of  af- 
fording homes  and  instruction  to  orphaned  children.  Eccle- 
siastical music  was  at  first  the  special  object  of  these  schools. 
(552) 


MUSICAL   EDUCATION    IN    ITALY.  553 

The  pupils  sang  in  choirs,  various  rehgious  offices,  proces- 
sions, etc.  There  were  four  of  these  institutions :  Santa 
Maria  di  Loreto,  founded  in  1535,  which  had  on  its  roster 
such  eminent  musicians  as  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  Durante, 
Porpora,  Sacchini  and  Guglielmi ;  San  Onofrio,  founded 
in  1576,  some  famous  pupils  being  Gizzi,  Jommelli,  Piccini 
and  Paisiello;  De  P overt  di  Gesii  Crista,  established  in  1589, 
numbering  among  its  pupils,  Greco,  Vinci,  and  Pergolesi ; 
Delia  Pietd  de'Turchini,  started  in  1584,  having  among  its 
pupils,  Leo,  Cafara,  and  Feo.  In  1797,  the  first  two  named 
were  united,  the  third  was  changed  into  a  seminary  for 
priests  in  1744,  and  in  1808,  the  last  was  closed,  and  a  school 
of  music  was  established  to  take  the  place  of  the  remaining 
institutions.  This  school,  which  received  the  title  Reale 
Collegia  di  Music  a,  still  exists. 

Venice  rivaled  Naples  in  devotion  to  music,  and  early 
took  measures  to  give  musical  instruction  to  the  wards  of 
charitable  institutions.  These  schools  were  not  named  Con- 
servatorio,  as  at  Naples,  but  Ospedale  (hospital),  since  they 
were  a  part  of  the  foundation  for  institutions  to  receive  the 
poor  and  infirm,  their  work  as  conservatories  developing 
gradually.  Such  masters  as  Lotti,  Galuppi,  Scarlatti,  Cima- 
rosa  presided  over  the  four  schools  best  known.  When  the 
Republic  fell,  these  institutions  collapsed  in  the  financial 
crisis  that  followed.  The  principal  music  school  in  Venice 
at  the  present  time  is  the  Liceo  Benedetto  Marcello,  which 
is  subsidized  by  the  city.  An  Italian  conservatory  of  ancient 
date  is  the  one  at  Palermo,  which  was  established  in  161 5. 
At  the  present  time  it  is  a  State  institution.  The  Academy 
of  St.  Cecilia,  at  Kome,  dates  its  original  foundation  to  a 
society  of  musicians  formed  in  1566,  a  charter  being  granted 
by  Pope  Gregory  XIII,  in  1584.  The  Academy  possesses 
the  largest  and  most  important  musical  library  in  Italy. 
Milan  had  a  school  of  music  as  early  as  1483.  The  cele- 
brated theoretician,  Gafurio,  was  the  first  great  teacher.  It 
was  not  permanent,  however,  and  though  there  were  schools 
for  singers  there  from  time  to  time,  it  was  not  until  1807 
that  the  municipality  established  a  regular  school  of  music. 


554  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

The  first  school  of  music  at  Bologna  was  established  in 
1482,  but  it  did  not  become  permanent.  In  later  years,  mu- 
sical affairs  were  in  the  hands  of  academies  for  the  pro- 
motion of  arts  and  sciences.  In  1864,  a  school  was  opened 
on  modern  lines.  Genoa  has  a  school  which  was  founded 
in  1829;  it  is  subsidized  by  the  city.  The  school  at  Florence 
was  opened  in  1862,  and  is  richly  endowed.  A  school  was 
heavily  endowed  by  Rossini  and  located  at  Pesaro,  his  birth- 
place. 

The  Pp.ris  Conservatoire. — To  France  belongs  the  honor 
of  following  closely  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Italian  authori- 
ties. In  1784,  a  Royal  School  of  Singing  was  opened  in 
Paris,  under  the  direction  of  Gossec,  the  composer;  in  1793 
it  was  enlarged  in  scope  and  was  called  the  National  Insti- 
tute of  Music;  in  1795  the  name  was  changed  to  the  Con- 
servatoire de  Miisique,  which  it  still  bears.  In  1800  the 
organization  was  further  modified  by  Bonaparte.  The  in- 
stitution receives  an  annual  subvention  from  the  Govern- 
ment. This  school  is  justly  considered  as  one  of  the  great- 
est in  existence  and  has  been  the  centre  of  musical  training 
for  practically  all  the  prominent  French  musicians.  A  great 
incentive  is  the  celebrated  Prix  de  Rome  (Roman  Prize), 
which  enables  the  winner  to  spend  three  years  in  study  in 
Italy  and  Germany.  The  library  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant in  France,  and  dates  from  the  foundation  of  the 
school.  The  Museum,  which  has  one  of  the  finest  collec- 
tions in  Europe,  was  established  in  1864.  Affiliated  schools 
have  been  established  in  the  principal  French  cities,  such  as : 
Marseilles,  Toulouse,  Nantes,  Dijon,  Lyons  and  Rouen. 

Musical  Education  in  Germany. — Among  the  German  con- 
servatories, that  at  Prague  is  the  oldest.  It  was  founded  in 
181 1.  Besides  music,  the  course  of  study  provides  for  in- 
struction in  general  branches.  The  violin  department  of 
this  school  is  one  of  its  strongest  features.  The  conserva- 
tory at  Vienna  was  opened  in  181 7,  under  the  direction  of 
Salieri,  as  a  vocal  school ;  other  branches  were  added  and 
by  182 1  the  foundation  was  that  of  a  true  conservatory. 
The  course  of  study  is  comprehensive  and  the  school  has 


GERMAN    CONSERVATORIES.  555 

graduated  a  number  of  eminent  musicians.  It  is  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Society  of  the  Friends  of  Music.  Prob- 
ably the  German  conservatory  best  known  to  American 
readers  is  that  founded  at  Leipzig,  in  1843,  by  Mendelssohn, 
and  of  which  he  was  the  first  director.  The  fund  used  in 
starting  the  school  was  one  of  20,000  thalers  bequeathed 
by  a  Government  official  "for  the  purposes  of  art  and 
science."  Such  masters  as  Schumann,  Moscheles,  Ferdinand 
David,  Plaidy,  Richter  and  Reinecke  were  members  of  the 
faculty  at  different  periods  in  the  history  of  the  school.  This 
conservatory  has  had  a  larger  number  of  American  pupils 
than  any  other  German  institution.  The  oldest  conserva- 
tory in  Berlin  was  a  private  institution.  The  most  impor- 
tant school  is  the  Royal  High  School  for  Music,  which  is 
a  branch  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts,  and  is  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Prussian  Government.  This  school  has 
three  sections,  the  one  for  church  music  was  opened  in  1822, 
for  musical  composition  in  1833,  that  for  executive  art  in 
1869.  The  violin  school,  under  the  direction  of  Joseph 
Joachim,  attracted  pupils  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Cologne 
has  a  conservatory  which  is  aided  financially  by  the  munici- 
pality. This  school  was  established  in  1850,  Ferdinand 
Hiller  being  the  first  director.  The  Royal  Conservatory  at 
Dresden  was  organized  in  1856,  and  has  paid  considerable 
attention  to  its  department  for  opera.  Munich  has  a  school 
which  receives  State  aid.  It  was  founded  in  1867.  Rhein- 
berger,  who  was  teacher  of  composition  here,  drew  a  num- 
ber of  Americans  to  the  school.  Other  schools  receiving 
State  or  municipal  subventions  are  those  at  Wuerzburg, 
Weimar,  Frankfort  and  Wiesbaden. 

Other  European  Music  Schools.  —  The  other  European 
countries  have  also  promoted  the  organization  of  schools 
for  teaching  music.  The  strongest  schools  in  Switzerland 
are  those  at  Zurich,  Geneva,  Basle  and  Berne.  In  Belgium 
are  several  fine  schools:  at  Brussels,  founded  in  1813,  which 
is  now  a  Government  institution,  at  Lie'ge  (1827),  at  Ghent 
(1833),  and  at  Antwerp,  the  latter  founded  in  1867,  by  the 
noted  Belgian  composer,  Peter  Benoit.    These  four  schools 


556  THE    HISTORY   OF    MUSIC. 

receive  State  aid.  Holland  has  three  conservatories  in  hei 
three  large  cities,  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam  and  The  Hague. 
^Scandinavian  musical  education  is  cared  for  by  the  con- 
servatories at  Copenhagen,  Christiania  and  Stockholm,  the 
last  being  under  Government  patronage.  Spain  has  con- 
servatories at  Madrid,  Saragossa  and  Valencia,  and  Portugal, 
one  at  Lisbon.     Greece  sustains  a  school  at  Athens. 

St.  Petersburg  Conservatory. — A  conservatory  of  great 
importance  is  that  founded  at  St.  Petersburg  through  the 
exertions  of  the  famous  composer,  Anton  Rubinstein.  In 
1859,  he  organized  the  Russian  Musical  Society,  the  first 
object  of  which  was  to  give  amateurs  an  opportunity  to 
practice  orchestral  playing.  Changes  in  the  policy  of  the 
Society  were  gradually  introduced,  branches  were  founded 
in  several  other  cities,  among  them  Moscow,  and  serious 
eflForts  were  inaugurated  to  organize  a  music  school  in  the 
Capital.  The  first  instruction  was  given  gratuitously,  money 
was  raised  in  private  circles  and  a  floor  was  rented  in  a 
private  house  in  1862  for  the  use  of  the  school.  The  Em- 
peror Alexander  II  gave  to  the  school  an  annuity  of  5000 
rubles  and  a  building  which  was  the  property  of  the  Crown. 
In  1866  the  name  was  officially  designated  as  Conservatory, 
and  from  that  time  on  several  members  of  the  Royal  family 
became  patrons  of  the  school,  socially  as  well  as  financially. 
Rubinstein  was  the  first  director.  The  building  at  present 
occupied  by  the  school  was  formerly  the  Grand  Theatre  and 
is  very  completely  furnished  for  the  purposes  of  the  Conser- 
vatory, having  two  concert  halls,  museums,  library,  class 
rooms,  chapel,  etc.  Among  the  graduates  of  the  institution 
are  Tchaikovsky,  GlazounoflF,  Balakireff,  Arensky,  Liadow, 
Gabrilowitsch,  Sapellnikoff  and  Felix  Blumenfeld. 

Musical  Education  in  England  is  well  cared  for,  princi- 
pally by  the  strong  schools  in  London,  of  which  there  are 
four  that  call  for  particular  notice.  The  Royal  Academy  of 
Music  is  the  oldest ;  it  was  founded  in  1822.  This  institu- 
tion has  had  royal  patronage  from  the  beginning.  The 
British  public  has  generously  replied  with  subscriptions  to 
appeals  made  for  funds  at  different  periods  in  the  history 


MUSICAL    EDUCATION    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  557 

of  the  school,  the  Government  grant  being  revoked  on 
several  occasions.  At  the  present  time  the  revenues  are 
a  Government  grant,  subscriptions,  donations,  and  students' 
fees.  Such  eminent  musicians  as  Dr.  Crotch,  Sterndale 
Bennett  and  Sir  George  Macfarren  have  filled  the  position 
of  principal  of  the  school.  Sir  A.  C.  Mackenzie  is  the 
present  head.  A  strong  rival  to  the  Royal  Academy  is  the 
Royal  College  of  Music,  which  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  Na' 
tional  Training  School  for  Music,  founded  by  the  Societjf 
of  Arts  in  1876,  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan,  first  principal.  It 
was  in  1883  that  the  institution  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  newly-organized  Royal  College  of  Music.  The  funds 
of  the  college  come  from  fees,  subscriptions  and  endow- 
ments. Sir  George  Grove  was  director  for  a  number  of 
years  and  was  succeeded  by  Sir  C.  H.  Hubert  Parry,  the 
eminent  composer  and  theorist.  Trinity  College  is  the  out- 
growth of  the  activity  of  a  musical  society  formed  to  pro- 
mote church  music  and  singing.  In  188 1  it  was  incor- 
porated under  the  name  it  now  bears  and  the  scope  of  its 
instruction  extended.  The  Gruildhall  School  of  Music  is  un- 
der the  patronage  of  the  authorities  of  the  City  of  London. 
This  institution  was  founded  in  1880,  and  has  a  very  large 
attendance.  The  present  director  is  Mr.  W,  H,  Cummings, 
The  leading  English  universities,  Cambridge,  Oxford,  Lon- 
don, Durham,  and  that  at  Edinburgh  and  Dublin  have 
courses  in  the  theory  of  music,  leading  to  degrees. 

Musical  Education  in  the  United  States:  Boston. — The 
United  States  has  no  schools  of  music  under  Governmental 
or  municipal  direction,  and  none  which  receive  subventions, 
and  but  one,  established  in  1905,  in  New  York  City,  which  is 
endowed.  The  spread  of  musical  education  has  been  due 
to  the  energies  and  in  many  cases  the  sacrifices  of  musicians 
and  music  lovers  in  the  larger  cities.  In  Lesson  LVII  ref- 
erence was  made  to  societies  in  the  three  large  American 
cities,  Boston,  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  to  further  mu- 
sical education.  The  oldest  true  music  school  in  the  United 
States  is  the  New  England  Conservatory  of  Music,  in  Bos- 
ton, founded  by  Dr.  Tourjee,  in  1867.     A  notable  feature 


558  THE    HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

was  the  dormitory  for  female  students.  Eminent  instruc- 
tors were  engaged,  both  foreigners  and  Americans,  and  the 
school  quickly  established  a  reputation  as  the  leading  insti- 
tution for  musical  education.  Dr.  Tourjee  was  succeeded 
in  the  directorship  by  Mr.  Carl  Faelten,  who  resigned  after 
several  years  of  service  and  was  followed  in  the  ofifice  by 
Mr.  George  W,  Chad  wick,  the  present  director,  in  1897. 
In  1902  a  new  building  was  erected  largely  through  the 
benefactions  of  several  public-spirited  citizens  of  Boston. 
Among  the  teachers  who  exerted  a  strong  influence  on 
American  pupils  may  be  mentioned  Stephen  A.  Emery, 
A.  D.  Turner,  Lyman  W.  Wheeler,  Carlyle  Petersilea,  Otto 
Bendix  and  George  E.  Whiting.  A  school  in  Boston,  with 
special  strength  in  the  violin  department,  was  the  Boston 
Conservatory,  founded  by  Julius  Eichberg. 

The  West.  —  In  1878,  several  music-loving  citizens  of 
Cincinnati  established  the  Cincinnati  College  of  Music,  with 
Theodore  Thomas  as  the  first  director.  After  him  came 
various  members  of  the  faculty,  and  in  1897,  Mr.  Frank 
Van  der  Stucken  accepted  the  post  of  dean  of  the  faculty. 
In  connection  with  the  Cincinnati  Symphony  Orchestra  and 
the  Festival  Association,  the  College  of  Music  has  been  a 
powerful  factor  in  the  musical  life  of  the  city.  As  an  educa- 
tional force  it  has  done  much  for  music  in  the  West  and 
the  Southwest,  and  its  pupils  have  carried  into  all  sections 
of  the  tributary  States  sound  musical  precepts.  Chicago 
has,  at  the  present  day,  several  schools,  organized  and  con- 
ducted by  private  enterprise,  which  are  doing  splendid 
work  and  have  made  the  city  the  musical  centre  of  the  West. 
Musicians  of  the  highest  rank  have  been  brought  to  the 
United  States  by  several  of  these  conservatories,  to  the 
benefit  of  musical  art  in  Chicago  and  the  Western  States. 

Oberlin  Conservatory  of  Music,  a  department  of  Oberlin 
College,  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  American  idea  of 
musical  work  in  an  institution  of  learning.  The  school  has 
a  strong  faculty  and  a  large  number  of  pupils,  whose  work 
receives  credit  for  graduation  in  the  college  courses ;  the 
students  in  music  have  all  the  privileges  of  those  entered 


MUSICAL   EDUCATION    IN    THE   COLLEGES.  559 

in  the  regular  colleges.  Oberlin  has  been  a  great  factor  for 
musical  progress  in  the  Middle  West. 

The  East. — New  York  City  has  two  schools  that  deserve 
mention:  the  National  Conservatory  of  Music,  founded  by 
Mrs.  Jeannette  Thurber,  a  school  which  has  offered  as 
teachers  to  the  American  pupils  such  musicians  as  Rafael 
Josefify  and  Antonin  Dvorak;  the  Institute  of  Musical  Art. 
opened  in  1905,  with  Frank  Damrosch  as  director,  with  a 
faculty  of  high  repute,  both  Europeans  and  Americans. 
This  school  started  with  an  endowment  of  $500,000  given 
by  Mr.  James  Loeb,  a  New  York  banker.  A  school  of 
music  managed  on  conservative  lines  has  existed  for  a 
number  of  years  in  Baltimore,  in  connection  with  the  Pea- 
body  Institute,  which  was  endowed  by  the  banker,  George 
Peabody.  At  the  present  time  nearly  every  city  of  im- 
portance in  the  United  States  contains  one  or  more  conser- 
vatories, managed  on  a  strictly  business  basis,  and  furnish- 
ing to  the  people  of  their  communities  thorough  instruction 
at  reasonable  cost. 

In  the  Colleges. — The  important  American  institutions  for 
higher  education,  both  for  men  and  for  women,  have  recog- 
nized the  claim  of  music  to  a  place  in  the  curriculum,  and 
have  provision  for  instructions  in  the  theory,  history  and 
esthetics  of  music,  many  also  having  facilities  for  instruc- 
tions in  the  practical  side  of  music.  Harvard,  Yale,  Colum- 
bia, Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  California  and  Northwestern 
Universities  have  established  professorships  of  music,  and 
have  called  eminent  musicians  to  the  posts.  The  work  done 
in  hundreds  of  schools  of  less  reputation  is  a  great  factor  in 
spreading-  musical  culture  throughout  the  country. 


INDEX. 


Adam,  (Ad-on,  na«(U  n),  365 

Aeolian,  30 

Akkadians,  25,  36 

Albeniz,  497 

Alberti,  252 

Alkan,  {Al-kon,  nasnl  n),  443 

Amati   (AmdhteeJ,  317 

Ambrose,  63 

American   Indian  Music,  531 

American  Music,  525 

Anglebert  d',   {Oti-yk-bare),  238 

Antiphony,  5w 

Apollo,  Hymn  to,  48,  49 

Apthorp,  550 

Archseology,  20 

Archer.   168 

Archilute,   151 

Arensky,  521 

Arghool,   150 

Aria.   190 

Aristotle,  47 

Aristoxenus,  47 

Arkadelt,   128,   136,   140,   143 

Astorga.  229 

Auber  (0-bare),  355,  357 

Authentic,G4,  66 

Babylonian  Music.  24.  36 

Bach   (liakh),  C.   P.   E..  279 

Bach.  J.  C.   278 

Bach.    .T.    S..    128.    164,    228,    244, 

269,   337.  439 
Bach.  W.   P..  278 
Baillot   iiJaA-i/o),328 
Balakireff   Ba-lak-i-r.ff).  442.  517 
Balfe  (Bolf),  210 
Bnllad.  455 
Ballad  Opera.  210 
Ballet  fliaUay),  203 
Bantock.   502 
Bards.   77 
Bassoon,   149 
Batiste  (Bateest),  16C 
Bauer  (Rower),  447 
Beach,  541 
Beethoven  (Baytoven),  18,  22,  231, 

299,   307.   338,  439 
Bellini   (Bellernee),  362 
Benda.  277.  350 
Bennett.  W.  S..  405.  459 
Bfnoit  (Benwah),  .503 
B°rgonzi   (BernonUee).  319 
Beriot,  de  (Bareeoh),  332 
B»rlin.   555 
Berlioz     (Bardeoz),     539,    433,    459, 

463 
Bernhard.   1.59 
Bernacchi   (Berndkkee).  199 
B^st.   167 

BIber,  (Reeher),  323 
Billings,  526 


(560) 


Binchois   (Banshicah,  nasal  n),  11.2 

Bizet   (liei-zeh),  .^74 

Blockx   (Blocks},  505 

Blow,   164 

Blumenfeld,   522 

Boethius,  48,   70 

Biihm.   .1.   (Hume),  331 

Bohni.   T..   WM 

Boieldieu  (Rwa/t-eldye,  as  in  err),  355 

Boise   (lioyce),  551 

Boito  (Bo6to),  375 

Bologna,   554 

Borodin,  519 

Bosch  i   (Boskec),  201 

Bossi  (BosHce).  167,  495 

Brahms,  439.  458,  459,  463 

Brassin  (Bruhasan,  nasal  n),  438 

Breitner  (Uritener),  445 

Bridge.  501 

Broadwood.  243 

Bruch  (lirookh),  478 

Brumel   (Broomel),  126 

Brnneau   (Rruno),  485 

Brussels,  555 

Buck,  460.  543 

Bull,  .L,   164,  257 

Billow  (Beclow),  von,  437 

Bungert   (Boonpert),  374.  476 

Buonamici   (Bonameechee),  448 

Buongiorno  (Bonzh6rno),  496 

Busnois  (Bimvah),  112 

Busoni.  iBoo-Z'',-nee),  4^8 

Buxtehude     (Bookstehdodeh),     163, 

265 
Byrd  (Bird),  121,  144,  164,  256 


Caccini  (Gacheinee),  175,  177 

Caffarelli.   199 

Caldara  (Calddhra).  226 

Cambert  (Conbare,  nasal  n),  204 

Canon.  109.  Ill,  126 

Cantata,  174 

Capocci  (Capdchee),  167 

Carestlnl  (Careste^nee),  201 

Carissimi.   184.  226 

Carreno  (Carainyo),  451 

Cassi  odorus.  74 

Cavali^re  (CavaUdire).  179 

Cavalli  (Cavdllee).  184 

Celts.  77 

Censorlnus  (Cennoreenua),  74 

Cesti  (Chestee).  184 

Chabrier  (Chahhrieh),  487 

Chadwick,  536,  544. 

Chaldseans.  24,  36.  37 

Chambonni^res  (Shamhnnniair),  25? 

Chamlnade  (Shnminahd).  488 

Chanson  (Shanson,  nasal  n),  144, 

455 
Charlemagne  fSharltnanye),  7" 


INDEX. 


561 


Charpentier  (Sharpahntieh),  485 

Chausson  (Showson,  nasal  n),  487 

Che,  26,   28 

Chelys   (Kellis),  .'jO 

Cherubini  (Karoobeenee),  223 

Chinese  Music,  25-29 

Chopin    (t^howpan,    nasal    n),    387, 

417.   425 
Ohorale.    165.  227 
Chorus.   Greeli.   57 
Chiomatic  Scaie,  Greek,  55 
Church   Scales.  64 
Cimarosa  (Chimaroza),  193 
Cincinnati   College  of  Music,   558 
Cithara  (Kltura),  56 
Clarinet.   150,  338 
Clarke,  551 

Claudius  Ptolemy.  48.  63 
Clavicembalo  (Clavichembdlo),  240 
Clavichord,  237 
Clementl,   18.     380 
Coleridge-Taylor,  502 
Cologne.   555 

Concerto  (Conchairto),  323 
Conductus,  S3,   101 
Confucius.   26.   27,  29 
Contra  Bass,  321 
Corelli.  250,  323 
Cotton.   .Tohn.   75 
Council  of  Trent.  141 
Counterpoint.   Ill 
Couperin  (Kooperan,  nasal  n),  258 
Cowen.  500 

Cramer   (Krahmcr).  382 
Crescentini   fCreschentecnee),  201 
Cristoforl   (Cristoforee).  241 
Crouth   (Crooth).   11,   153 
Cul   (Ko6ee).  518 
Czerny  (Chairny),  384,  425 

D'Albert  (Dolbare),  437.  477 

Damrosch.   W..   529,   544 

Dance  Tunes.  248 

Daquin  (Dahlcan,  nasal  n),  259 

David  (Dahvid).  330 

Debussy     (modified     u,     similar     to 

German  ii).  486 
Dellandlo,   121 
Dekoven.  544 
Delaborde.   444 
Delibes.  (Deleeb),  483 
Diapason.  59 
Diaphony.  73.  93 
Dickinson.  551 
Didymus.   48 
Dimmer  (Diaimeh),  444 
Di  Ruta  (Di  Roota).  250 
Di  Salo  (Di  Sahlo),  316 
Discant.   73.    104 
Dominant,   66 
Donizetti.   361 
Dont  (Don,  nasal  n),  331 
^Dorinn.   30.   52,  54,  64 
Dowland.   144 
Drama.   172 
Dresden.   555 

Dubois  (Doobtcah),  167,  487 
Duels,  [Doo-see)  161 
Dufay,   112 
Dulcimer.   237 


Dunstable,  121 

Dupont  (Doopon,  nasal  n),  439 
Durante  (DoordhntayJ,  252 
Dvorflk  (Dvorzhak),  'All,  459,  508 
Dwight,  547 

Ecclesiastical  Scales,  52,  64 

Eck.  329 

Eddy,   547 

Edwardes,   144 

Egyptian  Music,  38-41 

Blgar,  460,  501 

Bison,  550 

English  Music,  80.  115 

English  Opera,  207 

English  Opera,  typical.  209 

Enharmonic  Scale,  Greek,  56 

p]nna,  512 

Piquai  Temperament,  243 

Erard  (Airur),  243 

Erkel  (Airkle),  510 

Ernst,  (Airnst),  331 

Essipoff,   451 

Ethnology,  21 

Euclid,  48 

Fahurden,   73 
Farinelli.  200 
Fasch  (Fahsh),  277 
Faure  (Foray),  413,  487 
Ferri.   199 

Fibich   (Feebikh),   510 
Fidel io  (Fidaylo),  222 
Fidula,   153 
Field,  387,  421 
Finck,  551 
Finland.   81 

Fiorillo  (Feeorillo),  329 
Florence,   173.  554 
Florentine  School,  177 
Flute.   28.  38.  56.   149.   338 
Folk-Song,    85,    96,    111,    507,    51G 
531  .  .  . 

Foote,  539 

Form,   18 

Franchetti  (Frankettee),  494 

Franck.  (Prnn.  nasntn).  167,  4,59,  483 

Franco  of  Cologne.  72,  104 

Franco   of   I'aris.    104 

Franz  (Frahnts),  457 

French  Opera.  203 

Frescobaldi      (Frescobahldee),     162 

249 
Froberger  (Frobairqer).  162.  264 
Fugue  (Fewg),  111,   126,  265 
Fux  (Fooks),  163 

Gabriell.  A.,  136,   162,  247 
Gabrieli.  G..   136.   162.   248 
Gabrilowitsch   (Gahrildvitch),  447 
Gade  (Gahdeh).  405 
Gagliano  (Oalydno).  Ill,  319 
Galilei   (Oalilace),  174 
Gallo-Belgic  School,   107,   124 
Gamut.  67 
Gastoldi.   144 
Gauls.   Music  of  the.   77 
Gavin ies  (Oavinies),  328 
Geminiani  (Zhemine&hnee),  325 
Genoa,  554 


562 


INDEX. 


German,   E.  503 

German  Opera,  211 

cJevaert,  (Oay-vahrt),  438 

Gibbons,  121,  144,  164,  257 

Gilchrist,  536 

Gilson  (Zhilson,  noitol  n),  504 

Giordano  fZhorddhnoJ,  493 

Gipsies,  33 

Glazounoff  (Gldzoonof),  520 

Glinka,  377,  516 

Gluck    (Glook),   215 

Godowsky  (Oodoffnky).  449 

Goldmark.  472 

Gombert  {GonlKire,  nasal  71).  128,  134 

Goss,   167 

Gottschalk,  546 

Goudlmel  (Qoodimel),  128,  136,  140, 

142 
Gounod  (Goonoh),  374,  459 
Grand  Opera.  349,  353.  356 
Graun  (au,  like  01c  in  how),  227 
Gravlcembalo  (Gravichemhahlo ) , 

240 
Greater  Perfect  System,  51,  64 
Greek  Drama,  172 
Greek  Music,  46 
Greek  Scale.  50,  52,  55 
Gregorian,  43 
Gregory.  Pope,  63.  70 
Gr^try  (Greairy),  353 
Grieg   (Green).   448.   511 
Guadagnini    (Girahdnnyeenee),    319 
Guarnerius  (Gicariidiriua),  316, 

318 
Guglielml    (Gooly6lmee),  230 
GuFdo  (Owe6do).  67,  74,  95 
Guilmant  (Qeelmon,  nasal  n),  167, 

487 

Hadley.  540 

Hale  (Ahe).  Adam  de  la,  84 

Hale,   P..   550 

Hal^vv  (Alaivy).  359 

Hallstrom,  513 

Handel.  164,  213.  229.  266,  337 

Handel  and  Haydn  Society,  526 

Hambourg,  447 

Harmony,   18,  19.  59,  73,  75 

Harp,  39,  44,  1.50 

Harpsichord.  237 

Hasler  (Hassler),  263 

Hasse    (Hameh),   230 

Haupt   (Hoirpt).   166 

Hausegger  fHoicsepf/cr)  468 

Havdn  (Hyden).  18.   237,  283,  295, 

299,  307,  311.  .337 
Hebrew  Music,  41 
neller.  449 
Hellmesberger.  331 
Henderson.  551 
Henselt.  443 
Herbert,  544 
Harold.  C^oO,  355 
Hesse.  166 
Hexachord,  67.  68 
Hiller.   F.,  405 
Hlller.  .T.   A..  220 
Hlmmel.  302 
Hindoo  Music.  30-33 
Hobrecht,  127,  145 


Hofmann,  .1..  450 

Hopkins,   167 

niil)Pr    (Hoohrr),    470 

Huchald  (liuckbald),  67,  74,  95 

Ilumfrey,   207 

lltimmpl    (U(iommel),   3S3 

Uumpeidinck    (Hoowperdinck),  374, 

473 
Huneker.  551 
Hurdy  Curdy.  153 
Hydraulic  Organ,   157 

Imitation,   102,   109 

Indian  Music,  531 

Indy   d'    (Dundy,   French   nasal    n), 

413,  484 
Intermezzo,   192 
Ireland,   79 
Isidore  of  Seville.   74 
Italian  School,  Early,  131 

Japanese  Music,   29,  30 

Jean  de  Garlande   (Zhan,  nasal  nj 

104 
.Tean   Scot  Erigene,   74 
Jensen   (Yenseii),  413 
Jerome  de  Moravie  (Morahvee),  104 
Joachim  (Yodhkim).  331 
Jommelli   (Yommcllec),  193,   230 
Jongleurs  (Zhongler).  83 
Joseffy  (Yoseffy),  449.   546 
Josfiuin  de  Pres  (Zhoskan    {nasal),  de 

Pray),  127,  145 

Kelser  (Kyser),  213,  227 

Kelley.   544 

Kerl  (Kairl),  162,  264 

Keyboard.   159 

Kienzl  (Kecnzel),  474 

Kin.   26,  27 

Klstler,  475 

Kllndworth  (Klindwort),  443 

Klotz,   319 

Koto.  30 

Krehblel   (Krayheel),  551 

Kreutzer  (Kroitzer),  329 

Kuhnau  (Koonow),  276 

Landlno   (Landeeno),  161 

lessen  (Lnhssen).  ,513 

Lasso   (Lahsso),  di,    128,    134,    136, 

144,   173 
Lawes,  207 
Leclair,  328 
Lefebure- Wely  (Lcfaybcr-  Vaily), 

166 
I>pgrenzl   (Lcfirentsce),  184 
Leipzig  Conservatory,  401,  555 
I^ekeu  (Ixke,  as  in  err),  504 
Lemare,  168 
Lemmens  (I^mmaus),  166 
Leo  (Tyao),  226 
Leoncavallo,  376,  492 
Leonln  (Leonan,  nasal).  104 
Leschetlzky  (Leshetitsky).  388,   416 
Lesser  Perfect  System,  51,  64 
Lewts.   Denis.   7.5 
Lladoflf  (Le'dhdoff),  521 
Lied   (Leed),  455 
Liszt,  425,  436,  459,  463,  465 
Locatelll,  326 


INDEX. 


563 


Locke,  1G4,  207 

Loeffler  (Lerfler),  not  sounding   the 

lii'st  r),  541 
Logroscino  (LogroshecnoJ,  192 
LoUi,  329 
Lortzlng,  351 
Lotti,   184 
Lully,   204 
Lupot  (LUpoh),  319 
Lute,   151 
Luther,   138 
Lydian,  52 
Lyre,  39,  50,  56,   150 

Mac  Dowell,  450,  538 

Mackenzie,  460,  500 

Madrigal,   143 

Magadis,  58,  92 

Maggini  (Madyevni),  317 

Mahler,  469 

Marchand      {Marshon,     nasal),    165, 

259 
Marenzio  (Marentsio),  144 
Marpurg  (Marpoory),  277 
Marschner,  351 
Martucci  (Marto6chee),  495 
Mascagni    (Mascdnyeej,   376,    491 
Mason,  L..  527 
Mason,  Wm.,  450,  546 
Masque,  203,  209 
Massenet  (Masscnay),  482 
MaStersingers,  85 
Mathews,  548 
Mathias  (Matlah),  444 
Mattheson  (Matteson),  213,  268 
Measured  Music,  74,   100 
Mehul    (Mud,  So-i 
Melodrama,   350 
Melody,  is,  19.  20,  21,  59 
Mendelssohn,   166,  232,  400 
Merbecke,   121,   164 
Merkel  (Mairkel),  166 
Merulo  (Maroolo),  162,  247 
Mese  (Muyseh),  51 
Meyerbeer.   358 
Milan,  553 
Minnesingers,  84 
Minstrels,  81 
Miracle  Plays,   179,  213 
Mixo-Lydian,  52 
Monochord,  47,  237 
Monophony,  88 
Monteverde   (Montevairday),   180, 

188,  336 
Morley,  144,   164 

Moscheles  (Moschehless).  383,  401 
Moszkowski   (Moskoffskee),  449 
Motet.  83,   101,   103 
Moussorgsky,  518 
Mozart    (Motmrt).    219,    231,    291, 

299,  307.  311,  337 
Mu«fat.  265 
Munich,  555 
Musica  Ficta,  75 
Music  Drama.   175 
Mysteries.   179,  213 

Naples,  552 

Nardini  (Nardeenee),  327 

Neapolitan  School  of  Opera,  187 


Negro  Music,  531 

Neri  (N^hree),  140 

Netherlands,   107,   123 

Neumes  (Nooms),  70 

Nevin,   544 

New    England   Conservatory   of 

Music.  557 
Nicod(5  (Nikohdny ,  470 
Nocturne,  387,  421 
Notation   (Greek),  58,  70 

Oberlin,  558 

Oboe,   149,  337 

Octave  System  (Greek),  54 

Odington,   101,   118,   121 

Odo   (Otger),  74,  94 

Offenbach,   3.^>0 

Okeghem,   126,   134,   145 

Opera,  175,  196,  336 

Opera  Buffa  (Buoffa),  191,  349,  356 

Op^ra  Comique  (Comeck),  349,  353 

Oratorio,   179,  226 

Orchestra,  308,  334 

Organ,   125.   156.  236 

Organ  Pedals,   159 

Organum,  73,  93,   101 

Organum    (Secular),  94 

Orpheus,  46 

Overture,   191,   205,  342 

I'achelbel   (Pakhelbel),  163 

Pachmann   (Pnkhmnnn),  de.  440 

Paderewski  (Padreffski),  446,  511 

I'aganini  (Paqanccnee),  331,  426 

Paine,   460,   535 

Paisiello  (Paheesiello),  193,  230 

Palermo,  553 

Palestrina  (Palacetrcena),  136,  139 

173 
Pan's  Pipes.   22,   148,   156 
Parabosco,  247 
Paradies   (Paradeesj,  253 
Parallelism  in  Hebrew  Poetry,  43 
Paris  Conservatoire  (Conserva- 

twar),  554 
Paris  School,  99 
Parker,  H.,  460,  539 
Parker,  J.  C.  D.,  543 
Parry.  500 
Parthenia.   257 
Pasquini  (Paskweenee),  250 
Passion  Music,  227.   233 
Paumann  (Powman),  161 
I'edals    (Organ),   159 
Pentatonic,  27,  30,  32,  56.  60,  79 
Pergolesi.    (Per()ola::v),    192,    228 
Peri   (Perry),   175,   177 
Perosi   (Perozy),  460,  494 
Perotin  (Perotan,  nasal  n),  104 
Perry,  546 

I'etrucci   fPetrodchee),  145 
Philipp,  444 
Phorminx,  56 
Phrygian,  52.  54.  64 
Pianoforte,  241,  295,  308 
Piano  Playing,  295.  420,  430 
Plccini     {Pkheinee),     193 
Pizzicato  (Pitsicdto),  182 
Plagal,  64,  66 
Plato,  48 


5<54 


INDEX. 


Planquette  (Plonket,  nasal  n).  356 

Polyphony.  SS,  12\),  132,  164,  337 

Porpora,   193,   li3U,   285 

Prsetorius,   163 

Prague,  554 

Program  Music,  312,  465 

Psalms,  42,  43 

Psaltery,  237 

Puccini  (Poocheinee),  376,  493 

Pugnanl   (Punydhnce),  327 

Pugno  (Poonyo),  444 

Purcell,   121,   164.  207,  258 

Pythagoras,  41,  47 

Rachmaninoff    (RakhmdneCnoff), 

443,  521 
Rameau  (Rahmo),  206,  244,  260 
Ravanastcon,  32 
Rebec,  151,  152 

Recitative   (Reaitateiv)    174,    189 
Reed,   149 

Reformation,  The.  138 
Relneclce   (Rynekeh),  405 
Reinken  (Rhineken),  163,  265 
Remenyi,   331 
Renaissance    (Renasahns,   nasal   n), 

171,  246 
Reyer  {RayaM.A&Z 
Rheinhei-ger  (Rhineherger),  166 
Rhythm,  18,  19 
Rles,   (Reese).  305 
Rlmsky-Korsfikoff     (Rimsky-Kdrsa- 

koft),  519 
Rlnck.   165 

Rinuccinl   (Rinoocheenee),  175,   177 
Risler,  445 
Rode,  328 

Roentgen   (Rentffhen),  505 
Roman  Music,  62 
Romantic  Movement,  345,  404,  407, 

423,  439 
Rome,  553 

Rondeau  (Rondo),  83 
Rore  (Roam).  128,  136.  144,   162 
Rosenthal  (Rosentall),  437 
Rossini  (Rosseenee),  224,  229 
Roundel.  101 

Rubinstein.  A..  405.  441,  459 
Rummel  (Roomel),  449 
Russian  Music,  441 

Sacchlnl    (Sakeinee),    230 

Sachs  (Sdkhsl.  86 

Safonoff   (Safonoff).  443 

Saint  Petersburg  Conservatory,  556 

Saint-Saens    (San-I'iahnz,    nasal    n), 

167.  444.  459.  4H1 
Sallerl  (Sahlyairee),  223 
Sambuca.  37 
Santlr,   38 

Sapellnikoff  (f^apdllnikoff),  442 
Sauer  (Sour).  438 
Scales.  22.  29 
Scandinavian  Music.  80 
Scarlatti,  A.,  187.  196.  226,  250,  336 
Scarlatti.  D.,  251.  266 
Scheidemann  (tihjidemann),  163 
Scheldt  (Shite).  163 
Schillings,  475 


Schmidt.  B.,   162 

Schneider,   166 

Schopenhauer   (Shopenhoicer),   21 

Schroter  (tihrayter),  242 

Schubert,  391.  456 

Schumann,  Clara,  451 

Schumann,    U..    18.    395,    401,    407 

417,  425,  439,  457 
Schiitz  (Sheets),  211.  227 
Schytte    (Sheetch).  ,513 
Scottish  Music,   79 
Scriabine   (Skrcdhbcen),  443,   522 
Se,   28 

Seidl   (Sidle),  533 
Senesino  {aemzeeno),  199 
Sevcik  (Shcvchik),  333 
Sgambati  (Syambdhtoe),  448,  494 
Shawm,   150 
Shelley,  542 
Sheng,   26 
Sherwood,  450 
Sho.   29 
Shofar.   150 

Sibelius  (SeehaiUus).  513 
Sieveking  (Seevehking),  447 
Silbermann,  242 
Siloti,  442 
Slnding.  448,  511 
Sinfonla,   191.  322 
Singing,   195 

Singspiel   (Simjspeel),  212,  220 
Su'igren  (Sha</reeni,  513 
Slavinski.  447 
Smart.    107 

Smetana.  (Smetanuii,,  S77,  507 
Somis  (Somee),  325 
Sonata,    247,    274.    288,    295,    303, 

309,  322,  411 
Song.  395,  454.  468 
Spark.   167 

Spieloper   (Speelcper),   351 
Sninet,   239 

Spohr   (Spoar).   232,   329,  358 
Spontinl    ^Sponte^nee).    223 
Stabat     Mater     (Stahbat     Mahter) 

228 
Stainer,     Jakob    (Styner,    Yahkob), 

319 
Stainer.  John  (Stayner),  167 
Stanford.   497 

Stavenhagen    (Stahvennchgen),   438 
Stch^rbatcheff,   521 
Stein,   (Stine),  243 
Sternberg,  von.  546 
Stojowski  (Stoyoff.Hki),  447 
Stradella.  226 
Stradivarius.  319 
Strauss  (Strous),  R,  339,  374,  433, 

458.  463 
Streicher  (Strikher).  243 
Stringed  Instruments,  147,  150 
Suite.  249 
Sullivan.  210,  460 
Sumer  is  Icumen  in,  117 
Sumerians,  25 
Svendsen,  512 
Sweellnck  'Svalink).  128,  162 
Sylvester.  I'ope.  03 
Symphonia,  37 
Symphonic  Poem,  342,  433 


INDEX. 


565 


Symphony,  59,  342,  411 
Syrinx,  62,  148,  156 
Szumowska-Adamowska,  447 

Tablatura,  86,   151 

Tallls,   121,   164,  257 

Taneieff   {Tnneiyeff) ,  b21 

Tangent,  2.38 

Tartini  (Tarteenee),  325 

Tausig  (Tousiq),  436 

Tchaikovsky  (Chikoffskp),  522 

Tche,   28 

Terpander,  47 

Tetrachord,  47,  50 

Tetrachordon,  56 

Thayer,   550 

Theile  (Tyleh),  212 

Theorbo,  151 

Thlele  (Teeleh),  166 

Thomas  (Toamah),  A.,  483 

Thomas,   T.,  528 

Tieffenbrucker  (TeefenbrookerJ,  316 

Tinctorls,   127,   135 

Tinel,   504 

Tl-Tzu,   28 

Tonus  reregrinus,  63 

Torelli.  323 

Tosi   (Tozee),    198 

Tourte  (Toort),  320 

Tremolo,   183 

Trent,  Council  of,  141 

Tritone,   75 

Tromba  Marina  (Mare6na),  151,  152 

Troubadours,  83 

Trouveres   (Troovair),  82 

Trumpet,   150 

Tye,   121 

Ugab  (Oogahh),  148 
Unity,   102,   109 
Upton,  548 

Van  der  Stucken,  540 


Venetian  School,  184 

Venice,  553 

Veraclnl  (Vairacheinee),  325 

Verdi  (Vairdee),  361,  375 

Vienna,  554 

Vleuxtemps  (  TVetow,  as  in  err,  nasal),  332 

Vina  (Veena),  31,  32 

Viol,  145,  151.  154,  315 

Violin,  315,  320 

Violin  Bow,  319 

Violin  Playing,   322 

Violoncello  (VeeoloncMllo),  320 

Viottl   (Veeotti),  328 

Virginal,  239 

Virginal  Book,  256 

Vitali  (VetdhleeJ,  323 

Vivaldi  (Veevdhldee),  325 

Vuillaume  ( Vilei/ome)  319 

Waelrant  (Walerant),   144 
Wagenseil  (Vahgensile),  278 
Wagner    (Vah(jner),    R.,    339,    36u, 

364,  458 
Wagner's  (R.)   Theory,  369,  433 
Wagner,   S.,  476 
Weber  (Vaher),  346,   397 
Weelkes,  144 

Weingartner  (Vtneyartner),  470 
Well-Tempered  Clavichord,  271,  300 
Wesley,   167 

Widor   {Veedor),   167,  487 
Wieck  (Veek),  408 
Wilbye,   144 

Wilhelmj      {VUhdmee\,      330 
Willaert,  128,  135,  143,  162,  247 
Wind  Instruments,  147,  148 
Wolf,  H.,  478 
Wolf-Ferrari  (Ferrdhree),  498 

Ysaye  (^za/i-eA),  332 

Zeelandla  (Zalahndia),  112 
Zeisler  (Ztaeler),  451 


Ti 


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